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m A 2023 Annual Review synthesis highlights that regulating government use of AI requires sociotechnical design that addresses accountability, transparency, and bias. |
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{{short description|Alternative form of government or social ordering}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[
{{Government by algorithm}}
{{Governance|Models}}
'''Government by algorithm'''<ref name=sstandford>{{cite web|author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Government by Algorithm: A Review and an Agenda |url=https://law.stanford.edu/publications/government-by-algorithm-a-review-and-an-agenda/ |website=Stanford Law School |access-date=20 March 2020}}</ref> (also known as '''algorithmic regulation''',<ref name=medina>{{cite journal |last1=Medina |first1=Eden |title=Rethinking algorithmic regulation. |journal=Kybernetes |date=2015 |volume=44 |issue=6/7 |pages=1005–1019 |doi=10.1108/K-02-2015-0052 |url=http://wosc.co/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Medina-Rethinking-Algorithmic-Regulation.pdf}}</ref> '''regulation by algorithms''', '''algorithmic governance''',<ref name="Engin">{{cite journal |last1=Engin |first1=Zeynep |last2=Treleaven |first2=Philip |title=Algorithmic Government: Automating Public Services and Supporting Civil Servants in using Data Science Technologies |journal=The Computer Journal|date=March 2019 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=448–460 |doi=10.1093/comjnl/bxy082|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blankenship |first1=Joe |title=Algorithmic Governance |journal=International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (Second Edition) |date=2020 |pages=105–109 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-102295-5.10509-8 |isbn=978-0-08-102296-2}}</ref> '''algocratic governance''', '''algorithmic legal order''' or '''algocracy'''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danaher |first1=John |title=The Threat of Algocracy: Reality, Resistance and Accommodation |journal=Philosophy & Technology |date=1 September 2016 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=245–268 |doi=10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |s2cid=146674621 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |access-date=26 January 2022 |issn=2210-5441}}</ref>) is an alternative form of [[government]] or [[social order]]ing where the usage of computer [[algorithm]]s
Government by algorithm raises new challenges that are not captured in the [[e-government]] literature and the practice of public administration.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Veale |first1=Michael |last2=Brass |first2=Irina |title=Administration by Algorithm? Public Management Meets Public Sector Machine Learning |date=2019 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3375391}}</ref> Some sources equate [[cyberocracy]], which is a hypothetical [[Government#Forms|form of government]] that rules by the effective use of information,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2008/P7745.pdf |title=Cyberocracy, Cyberspace, and Cyberology:Political Effects of the Information Revolution |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1991|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/reprints/2007/RAND_RP222.pdf|title=Cyberocracy is Coming |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1992|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Ronfeldt |first1=David |last2=Varda |first2=Danielle |title=The Prospects for Cyberocracy (Revisited) |date=1 December 2008 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=1325809}}.</ref> with algorithmic governance, although algorithms are not the only means of processing information.<ref>{{cite web |title=Transparency in governance, through cyberocracy |url=https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2019/07/04/transparency-in-governance-through-cyberocracy |website=The Kathmandu Post |first=Bimal Pratap |last=Shah |date=July 4, 2019 |access-date=25 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hudson |first1=Alex |title='Far more than surveillance' is happening and could change how government is run |url=https://metro.co.uk/2019/08/28/far-more-than-surveillance-is-already-in-place-and-cyberocracy-could-change-how-government-is-run-10637802/ |website=Metro |access-date=25 April 2020 |date=28 August 2019}}</ref> [[Nello Cristianini]] and Teresa Scantamburlo argued that the combination of a human society and certain regulation algorithms (such as reputation-based scoring) forms a [[social machine]].<ref name=socialmachine>{{cite journal |last1=Cristianini |first1=Nello |last2=Scantamburlo |first2=Teresa |title=On social machines for algorithmic regulation |journal=AI & Society |date=8 October 2019 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=645–662 |doi=10.1007/s00146-019-00917-8 |arxiv=1904.13316 |bibcode=2019arXiv190413316C |s2cid=140233845 |issn=1435-5655}}</ref>
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[[File:Legol Group 1977 (3832930465).jpg|thumb|LEGOL Group (1977)]]
[[File:-rpTEN - Tag 3 (26745091551).jpg|thumb|''"Blockchain and the future of governance. Let's overcome the hype and understand what can be done."'' with Andrea Bauer, Boris Moshkovits und Shermin Voshmgir at [[re:publica]]]]
In 1962, the director of the Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] in Moscow (later Kharkevich Institute),<ref>{{cite web |title=Organisations: Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Kharkevich Institute): Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Kharkevich Institute), Moscow, Russia |url=http://www.mathnet.ru/php/organisation.phtml?orgid=5026&option_lang=eng |website=www.mathnet.ru |access-date=24 March 2021}}</ref> [[Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Kharkevich|Alexander Kharkevich]], published an article in the journal "Communist" about a computer network for processing information and control of the economy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Machine of communism. Why the USSR did not create the Internet |url=http://csef.ru/en/politica-i-geopolitica/223/mashiny-kommunizma-pochemu-v-sssr-tak-i-ne-sozdali-svoj-internet-6983 |website=csef.ru |access-date=21 March 2020 |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kharkevich |first1=Aleksandr Aleksandrovich|title=Theory of information. The identification of the images. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 3|date=1973|publisher=Moscow: Publishing House "Nauka", 1973.
Between 1971 and 1973, the [[Chile]]an government carried out [[Project Cybersyn]] during the [[presidency of Salvador Allende]]. This project was aimed at constructing a distributed [[decision support system]] to improve the management of the national economy.<ref>{{ cite web| url=http://newsinfo.iu.edu/web/page/normal/11088.html| title=IU professor analyzes Chile's 'Project Cybersyn'| publisher=UI News Room| access-date=27 May 2013| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090910060602/http://newsinfo.iu.edu/web/page/normal/11088.html| archive-date=10 September 2009}}</ref><ref name=medina/> Elements of the project were used in 1972 to successfully overcome the traffic collapse caused by a [[Presidency of Salvador Allende#Crisis|CIA-sponsored strike of forty thousand truck drivers]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Medina |first1=Eden |title=Rethinking algorithmic regulation |journal=Kybernetes |date=1 January 2015 |volume=44 |issue=6/7 |pages=1005–1019 |doi=10.1108/K-02-2015-0052}}</ref>
Also in the 1960s and 1970s, [[Herbert A. Simon]] championed [[expert systems]] as tools for rationalization and evaluation of administrative behavior.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freeman Engstrom |first1=David |last2=Ho |first2=Daniel E. |last3=Sharkey |first3=Catherine M. |last4=Cuéllar |first4=Mariano-Florentino |title=Government by Algorithm: Artificial Intelligence in Federal Administrative Agencies |url=https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf |date=2020 |access-date=2020-03-26 |archive-date=2022-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815021400/https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The automation of rule-based processes was an ambition of tax agencies over many decades resulting in varying success.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Helen |last1=Margretts |author-link1=
"[T]he invisible hand of cyberspace is building an architecture that is quite the opposite of its architecture at its birth. This invisible hand, pushed by government and by commerce, is constructing an architecture that will perfect control and make highly efficient regulation possible"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=Lessig |author-link1=Lawrence_Lessig |title=Code |date=2006 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-03914-2 |edition=Version 2.0}}</ref>▼
▲
Since the 2000s, algorithms have been designed and used to [[Closed-circuit television#Computer-controlled analytics and identification|automatically analyze surveillance videos]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sodemann |first1=Angela A. |last2=Ross |first2=Matthew P. |last3=Borghetti |first3=Brett J. |title=A Review of Anomaly Detection in Automated Surveillance |journal=IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics - Part C: Applications and Reviews|date=November 2012 |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1257–1272 |doi=10.1109/TSMCC.2012.2215319|s2cid=15466712}}</ref>▼
▲Since the 2000s, algorithms have been designed and used to [[Closed-circuit television#Computer-controlled analytics and identification|automatically analyze surveillance videos]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sodemann |first1=Angela A. |last2=Ross |first2=Matthew P. |last3=Borghetti |first3=Brett J. |title=A Review of Anomaly Detection in Automated Surveillance |journal= IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics
In his 2006's book ''Virtual Migration'', [[A. Aneesh]] developed the concept of algocracy — information technologies constrain human participation in public decision making.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelty |first1=Christopher |title=Explaining IT |journal=Political and Legal Anthropology Review |date=2009 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=156–160 |doi=10.1111/j.1555-2934.2009.01035.x |jstor=24497537 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24497537 |access-date=26 January 2022 |issn=1081-6976}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danaher |first1=John |title=The Threat of Algocracy: Reality, Resistance and Accommodation |journal=Philosophy & Technology |date=September 2016 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=245–268 |doi=10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |s2cid=146674621 |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DANTTO-13 }}</ref> Aneesh differentiated algocratic systems from bureaucratic systems (legal-rational regulation) as well as market-based systems (price-based regulation).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aneesh |first1=A. |title=Virtual Migration: the Programming of Globalization. |date=2006 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-3669-3 |url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/Virtual-Migration/}}</ref>▼
▲In his 2006
In 2013, algorithmic regulation was coined by [[Tim O'Reilly]], founder and CEO of O'Reilly Media Inc.:
[...] Laws should specify goals, rights, outcomes, authorities, and limits. If specified broadly, those laws can stand the test of time. Regulations, which specify how to execute those laws in much more detail, should be regarded in much the same way that programmers regard their code and algorithms, that is, as a constantly updated toolset to achieve the outcomes specified in the laws. [...] It's time for government to enter the age of big data. Algorithmic regulation is an idea whose time has come.<ref name=timoreilly>{{cite book |last1=O’Reilly |first1=Tim |author-link1=Tim_O'Reilly |editor1-last=Goldstein |editor1-first=B. |editor2-last=Dyson |editor2-first=L. |title=Beyond Transparency: open Data and the Future of Civic Innovation |date=2013 |publisher=Code for America Press |___location=San Francisco |pages=289–300 |chapter=Open Data and Algorithmic Regulation}}</ref>▼
▲<blockquote>Sometimes the "rules" aren't really even rules. Gordon Bruce, the former CIO of the city of Honolulu, explained to me that when he entered government from the private sector and tried to make changes, he was told, "That's against the law." His reply was "OK. Show me the law." "Well, it isn't really a law. It's a regulation." "OK. Show me the regulation." "Well, it isn't really a regulation. It's a policy that was put in place by Mr. Somebody twenty years ago." "Great. We can change that!" [...] Laws should specify goals, rights, outcomes, authorities, and limits. If specified broadly, those laws can stand the test of time. Regulations, which specify how to execute those laws in much more detail, should be regarded in much the same way that programmers regard their code and algorithms, that is, as a constantly updated toolset to achieve the outcomes specified in the laws. [...] It's time for government to enter the age of big data. Algorithmic regulation is an idea whose time has come.<ref name=timoreilly>{{cite book |last1=
In 2017, Ukraine's [[Ministry of Justice (Ukraine)|Ministry of Justice]] ran experimental [[government auction]]s using [[blockchain]] technology to ensure transparency and hinder corruption in governmental transactions.<ref name=ukrainereuteers/> "Government by Algorithm?" was the central theme introduced at ''Data for Policy 2017'' conference held on 6–7 September 2017 in London, UK.<ref>{{cite web |title=Data for Policy 2017 |url=https://dataforpolicy.org/data-for-policy-2017/ |website=Data for Policy CIC |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref>▼
▲In 2017, Ukraine's [[Ministry of Justice (Ukraine)|Ministry of Justice]] ran experimental [[government auction]]s using [[blockchain]] technology to ensure transparency and hinder corruption in governmental transactions.<ref name=ukrainereuteers/> "Government by Algorithm?" was the central theme introduced at
==Examples==
===Smart cities===
[[File:Architecture-of-the-IoT-for-home-care-systems.jpg|thumb|Architecture of the [[IoT]] for home care systems]]
A [[smart city]] is an urban area where collected surveillance data is used to improve various operations. Increase in computational power allows more automated decision making and replacement of public agencies by algorithmic governance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brauneis |first1=Robert |last2=Goodman |first2=Ellen P. |title=Algorithmic Transparency for the Smart City |journal=Yale Journal of Law & Technology |date=1 January 2018 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=103 |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-544510684/algorithmic-transparency-for-the-smart-city}}</ref> In particular, the combined use of artificial intelligence and blockchains for [[Internet of things|IoT]] may lead to the creation of [[sustainable]] smart city ecosystems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Saurabh |last2=Sharma |first2=Pradip Kumar |last3=Yoon |first3=Byungun |last4=Shojafar |first4=Mohammad |last5=Cho |first5=Gi Hwan |last6=Ra |first6=In-Ho |title=Convergence of blockchain and artificial intelligence in IoT network for the sustainable smart city |journal=Sustainable Cities and Society |date=1 December 2020 |volume=63 |pages=102364 |doi=10.1016/j.scs.2020.102364 |s2cid=225022879 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210670720305850 |access-date=24 March 2021 |issn=2210-6707}}</ref> [[Intelligent street lighting]] in [[Glasgow]] is an example of successful government application of AI algorithms.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gardner |first1=Allison |title=Don't write off government algorithms – responsible AI can produce real benefits |work=The Conversation |url=https://theconversation.com/dont-write-off-government-algorithms-responsible-ai-can-produce-real-benefits-145895 |access-date=1 April 2021}}</ref> A study of smart city initiatives in the US shows that it requires public sector as a main organizer and coordinator, the private sector as a technology and infrastructure provider, and universities as expertise contributors.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morrow |first1=Garrett |title=The Robot in City Hall: The Limitations, Structure, and Governance of Smart City Technology Regimes|date=2022 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/6785af5e14f63d5e91d47b76337e4aec/1.pdf |via=ProQuest |language=en}}</ref>▼
▲A [[smart city]] is an urban area where collected surveillance data is used to improve various operations. Increase in computational power allows more automated decision making and replacement of public agencies by algorithmic governance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brauneis |first1=Robert |last2=Goodman |first2=Ellen P. |title=Algorithmic Transparency for the Smart City |journal=Yale Journal of Law & Technology |date=1 January 2018 |volume=20 |issue=1 |
The [[cryptocurrency]] millionaire Jeffrey Berns proposed the operation of [[local governments]] in [[Nevada]] by tech firms in 2021.<ref name=nevada>{{cite news |title=Nevada smart city: A millionaire's plan to create a local government |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56409924 |access-date=24 March 2021 |work=BBC News |date=18 March 2021}}</ref> Berns bought 67,000 acres (271 km²) in Nevada's rural [[Storey County]] (population 4,104) for $170,000,000 (£121,000,000) in 2018 in order to develop a smart city with more than 36,000 residents that could generate an annual output of $4,600,000,000.<ref name=nevada/> Cryptocurrency will be allowed for payments.<ref name=nevada/> Blockchains, Inc. "Innovation Zone" was canceled in September 2021 after it failed to secure enough water<ref>{{Cite web |last=Independent |first=Daniel Rothberg {{!}} The Nevada |title=Blockchains, Inc. withdraws 'Innovation Zone' plan for Storey County |url=http://www.nnbw.com/news/2021/oct/12/blockchains-inc-withdraws-innovation-zone-plan-sto/ |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=www.nnbw.com}}</ref> for the planned 36,000 residents, through water imports from a site located 100 miles away in the neighboring [[Washoe County, Nevada|Washoe County]].<ref name="thenevadaindependent.com">{{Cite web |title=Months before a company lobbied the Legislature to create its own county, it purchased faraway water rights that could fuel future growth |url=https://thenevadaindependent.com/article/months-before-a-company-lobbied-the-legislature-to-create-its-own-county-it-purchased-faraway-water-rights-that-could-fuel-future-growth |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=The Nevada Independent |date=12 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Similar water pipeline proposed in 2007 was estimated to cost $100 million and to would have taken about 10 years to develop.<ref name="thenevadaindependent.com"/> With additional water rights purchased from Tahoe Reno Industrial General Improvement District, "Innovation Zone" would have acquired enough water for about 15,400 homes - meaning that it would have barely covered its planned 15,000 dwelling units, leaving nothing for the rest of the projected city and its 22 million square-feet of industrial development.<ref name="thenevadaindependent.com"/>▼
▲The [[cryptocurrency]] millionaire Jeffrey Berns proposed the operation of [[local governments]] in [[Nevada]] by tech firms in 2021.<ref name=nevada>{{cite news |title=Nevada smart city: A millionaire's plan to create a local government |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56409924 |access-date=24 March 2021 |work=BBC News |date=18 March 2021}}</ref> Berns bought 67,000 acres (271 km
In [[Saudi Arabia]], the planners of [[The Line, Saudi Arabia|The Line]] assert that it will be monitored by AI to improve life by using data and predictive modeling.<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi Arabia is planning a 100-mile line of car-free smart communities |url=https://www.engadget.com/the-line-neom-smart-city-saudi-arabia-mohammed-bin-salman-113539487.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnLw&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAMcI4yDl2upDPXrWiYcCTvvnvLTYKdun8IrX9Z5qdG4mnuWTzhJXw6ImGxBrHyoFm8THyrYuJAnCXujn6nMP5RtPji43N5A0iz5T2qguDg1q8342WV8_PitetSew8vJ9bA-5qKIjexmcriDG6I84NBwoIgZbzR_BlQhWICkM5Jk3 |access-date=18 May 2022 |work=Engadget}}</ref>
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===Reputation systems===
{{See also|Credit score}}
[[File:Model Cybernetic Factory.svg|thumb|Model of cybernetic thinking about organisation. On the one hand in reality a system is determined. On the other hand, cybernetic factory can be modeled as a control system.<ref>{{cite book |
Tim O'Reilly suggested that data sources and [[reputation system]]s combined in algorithmic regulation can outperform traditional regulations.<ref name=timoreilly/> For instance, once taxi-drivers are rated by passengers, the quality of their services will improve automatically and "drivers who provide poor service are eliminated".<ref name=timoreilly/> O'Reilly's suggestion is based on the [[control theory|control-
These connections are explored by [[Nello Cristianini]] and Teresa Scantamburlo, where the reputation-credit scoring system is modeled as an incentive given to the citizens and computed by a [[social machine]], so that rational agents would be motivated to increase their score by adapting their behaviour. Several ethical aspects of that technology are still being discussed.<ref name=socialmachine/>
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===Smart contracts===
[[Smart contract]]s, [[cryptocurrencies]], and [[decentralized autonomous organization]] are mentioned as means to replace traditional ways of governance.<ref name=indiadao>{{cite news |last1=Bindra |first1=Jaspreet |title=Transforming India through blockchain |url=https://www.livemint.com/Technology/UZIex6fPPyAqVuTHqpzZiN/Transforming-India-through-blockchain.html |access-date=31 May 2020 |work=Livemint |date=30 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Finn |first1=Ed |date=10 April 2017 |title=Do digital currencies spell the end of capitalism? |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/political-science/2017/apr/10/do-digital-currencies-spell-the-end-of-capitalism |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref><ref name=algocracyblockchain/> Cryptocurrencies are currencies
===Algorithms in government agencies===
{{See also|Artificial intelligence in government}}
[[File:Team Rubicon - Rockaways - Palantir screenshot.jpg|thumb|Team Rubicon in the Rockaways Nov 12, 2012
According to a study of [[Stanford University]], 45% of the studied US federal agencies have experimented with AI and related machine learning (ML) tools up to 2020.<ref name=sstandford/> US federal agencies counted the number of [[artificial intelligence]] applications, which are listed below.<ref name=sstandford/> 53% of these applications were produced by in-house experts.<ref name=sstandford/> Commercial providers of residual applications include [[Palantir Technologies]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Leaked Palantir Doc Reveals Uses, Specific Functions And Key Clients |url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/01/11/leaked-palantir-doc-reveals-uses-specific-functions-and-key-clients/ |access-date=22 April 2020 |work=TechCrunch}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
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! Agency
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| [[Office of Justice Programs]] || 12
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In the fight against money laundering, [[Financial Crimes Enforcement Network|FinCEN]] employs the FinCEN Artificial Intelligence System (FAIS) since 1995.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Senator |first1=Ted E. |last2=Wong |first2=Raphael W.H. |last3=Marrone |first3=Michael P. |last4=Llamas |first4=Winston M. |last5=Klinger |first5=Christina D. |last6=Khan |first6=A.F. Umar |last7=Cottini |first7=Matthew A. |last8=Goldberg |first8=Henry G. |last9=Wooton |first9=Jerry |title=The FinCEN Artificial Intelligence System: Identifying Potential Money Laundering from Reports of Large Cash Transactions |journal=AAAI |url=https://www.aaai.org/Library/IAAI/1995/iaai95-015.php |access-date=10 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Goldberg |first1=H. G. |last2=Senator |first2=T. E. |chapter=The FinCEN AI System: Finding Financial Crimes in a Large Database of Cash Transactions |title=Agent Technology: Foundations, Applications, and Markets |date=1998 |pages=283–302 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-03678-5_15 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-03678-5_15 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-08344-0 |language=en}}</ref>
National health administration entities and organisations such as AHIMA (American Health Information Management Association) hold [[medical record]]s. Medical records serve as the central repository for planning patient care and documenting communication among patient and health care provider and professionals contributing to the patient's care. In the EU, work is ongoing on a [[European Health Data Space]] which supports the use of health data.<ref>
US [[Department of Homeland Security]] has employed the software ATLAS, which run on [[Amazon Cloud]]. It scanned more than 16.5 million
The [[NarxCare]] is a US software,{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=41}} which combines data from the prescription registries of various [[U.S. state]]s{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=40}}<ref>{{Cite news|last=Romo|first=Vanessa|date=2018-05-08|title=Walmart Will Implement New Opioid Prescription Limits By End Of Summer|work=[[National Public Radio|NPR]]|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/05/08/609442939/walmart-will-implement-new-opioid-prescription-limits-by-end-of-summer|access-date=2021-10-06}}</ref> and uses [[machine learning]] to generate various three-digit "risk scores" for prescriptions of medications and an overall "Overdose Risk Score", collectively referred to as Narx Scores,{{Sfn|Oliva|2020|p=847}} in a process that potentially includes [[Emergency medical services|EMS]] and criminal justice data{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=41}} as well as court records.{{Sfn|Oliva|2020|p=848}}
In Estonia, artificial intelligence is used in its [[e-government]] to make it more automated and seamless. A virtual assistant will guide citizens through any interactions they have with the government. Automated and proactive services "push" services to citizens at key events of their lives (including births, bereavements, unemployment
In Costa Rica, the possible digitalization of public procurement activities (i.e. tenders for public works
Besides using e-tenders for regular [[public works]] (construction of buildings, roads
Government [[procurement]] [[Audit management|audit software]] can also be used.<ref>
Some government agencies provide track and trace systems for services they offer. An example is [[track and trace]] for applications done by citizens (i.e. driving license procurement).<ref>
Some government services use [[issue tracking system]]s to keep track of ongoing issues.<ref>
===Justice by algorithm===
Judges' decisions in Australia are supported by the [[Split Up (expert system)|"Split Up" software]] in
[[Lawbot]]s can perform tasks that are typically done by paralegals or young associates at law firms. One such technology used by US law firms to assist in legal research is from ROSS Intelligence,<ref>"ROSS Intelligence Lands Another Law Firm Client." The American Lawyer. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 June 2017.
===
{{further|Ofqual exam results algorithm}}
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, in-person final exams were impossible for thousands of students.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Broussard |first1=Meredith |author-link=Meredith Broussard |title=Opinion {{!}} When Algorithms Give Real Students Imaginary Grades |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/08/opinion/international-baccalaureate-algorithm-grades.html |work=The New York Times |date=8 September 2020}}</ref> The public high school [[Westminster High School (Westminster, California)|Westminster High]] employed algorithms to assign grades. UK's [[Department for Education]] also employed a statistical calculus to assign final grades in [[A-levels]], due to the pandemic.<ref name="fuckthealgorithm">{{cite magazine |title=Skewed Grading Algorithms Fuel Backlash Beyond the Classroom |url=https://www.wired.com/story/skewed-grading-algorithms-fuel-backlash-beyond-classroom/ |access-date=26 September 2020 |magazine=Wired}}</ref>
Besides use in grading, software systems
AI teaching assistants are being developed and used for education (e.g.
===AI politicians===
{{See also|Chatbot#Politics}}
In 2018, an activist named Michihito Matsuda ran for mayor in the [[Tama, Tokyo|Tama city area of Tokyo]] as a human proxy for an [[artificial intelligence]] program.<ref>{{cite web |first=Michihito |last=Matsuda |title=
In 2018, [[Cesar Hidalgo]] presented the idea of [[augumented democracy]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perez |first1=Oren |title=Collaborative е-Rulemaking, Democratic Bots, and the Future of Digital Democracy |journal=Digital Government: Research and Practice |date=31 January 2020 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1145/3352463 |s2cid=211519367 |language=en |issn=2691-199X|doi-access=free }}</ref> In an augumented democracy, legislation is done by [[digital twin]]s of every single person.
In 2019, AI-powered messenger [[chatbot]] SAM participated in the discussions on social media connected to an electoral race in New Zealand.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sarmah |first1=Harshajit |title=World's First AI-powered Virtual Politician SAM Joins The Electoral Race In New Zealand |url=https://analyticsindiamag.com/worlds-first-ai-powered-virtual-politician-sam-joins-the-electoral-race-in-new-zealand/ |access-date=11 April 2020 |work=Analytics India Magazine |date=28 January 2019}}</ref> The creator of SAM, Nick Gerritsen,
In 2022, the chatbot "Leader Lars" or "Leder Lars" was nominated for [[The Synthetic Party]] to run in the 2022 [[Danish Realm|Danish]] parliamentary election,<ref>{{cite news |last=Sternberg |first=Sarah |date=20 June 2022 |title=Danskere vil ind på den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens |trans-title=Danes want to enter the political scene with artificial intelligence |newspaper=[[Jyllands-Posten]] |url=https://jyllands-posten.dk/kultur/ECE14145385/danskere-vil-ind-paa-den-politiske-scene-med-kunstig-intelligens/ |
In 2023, In the Japanese town of Manazuru, a mayoral candidate called "[[AI Mayer]]" hopes to be the first AI-powered officeholder in Japan in November 2023. This candidacy is said to be supported by a group led by Michihito Matsuda <ref>{{cite news |date=2023-11-07|title=Danskere vil ind den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens |trans-title=AI Mayer run to the election in Manazuru Town|newspaper=Tokyo Sports |url= https://www.tokyo-sports.co.jp/articles/-/282034 |access-date=2023-11-25}}</ref>
In the [[2024 United Kingdom general election]], a businessman named Steve Endacott ran for the constituency of [[Brighton Pavilion (UK Parliament constituency)|Brighton Pavilion]] as an AI avatar named "AI Steve",<ref>{{Cite news |last=Grierson |first=Jamie |date=2024-06-10 |title=Brighton general election candidate aims to be UK's first 'AI MP' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/article/2024/jun/10/brighton-general-election-candidate-uk-first-ai-mp-artificial-intelligence |access-date=2024-06-15 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> saying that constituents could interact with AI Steve to shape policy. Endacott stated that he would only attend Parliament to vote based on policies which had garnered at least 50% support.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-13 |title=Meet AI Steve, the avatar standing as a candidate in the UK election |url=https://www.euronews.com/next/2024/06/13/meet-ai-steve-the-uks-avatar-election-candidate |access-date=2024-06-15 |website=euronews |language=en}}</ref> AI Steve placed last with 179 votes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brighton-hove.gov.uk/news/2024/results-general-election-4-july-2024|title=Results – General Election 4 July 2024|date=5 July 2024 |publisher=Brighton & Hove City Council|language=en-gb|access-date=8 July 2024}}</ref>
===Management of infection===
{{See also|Digital contact tracing|Disease surveillance|COVID-19 apps}}
[[File:A schematic of app-based COVID-19 contact tracing (Fig. 4 from Ferretti et al. 2020).jpg|thumb|A schematic of app-based COVID-19 contact tracing<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ferretti |first1=Luca |last2=Wymant |first2=Chris |last3=Kendall |first3=Michelle |last4=Zhao |first4=Lele |last5=Nurtay |first5=Anel |last6=Abeler-Dörner |first6=Lucie |last7=Parker |first7=Michael |last8=Bonsall |first8=David |last9=Fraser |first9=Christophe |title=Quantifying SARS-CoV-2 transmission suggests epidemic control with digital contact tracing |journal=Science |date=8 May 2020 |volume=368 |issue=6491 |pages=eabb6936 |doi=10.1126/science.abb6936 |pmid=32234805 |pmc=7164555 |language=en |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>]]
In February 2020, China launched a [[mobile app]] to deal with the [[Coronavirus disease 2019|Coronavirus outbreak]]<ref>{{cite news |title=China launches coronavirus 'close contact' app |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51439401 |access-date=7 March 2020 |work=BBC News |date=11 February 2020}}</ref> called "close-contact-detector".<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/tech/apps-social/article/3050054/china-launches-coronavirus-close-contact-detector-effort-reassure|title=China launches coronavirus 'close contact detector' platform|date=February 12, 2020|website=South China Morning Post}}</ref> Users are asked to enter their name and ID number. The app is able to detect "close contact" using surveillance data (i.e. using public transport records, including trains and flights)<ref name="auto"/> and therefore a potential risk of infection. Every user can also check the status of three other users. To make this inquiry users scan a Quick Response (QR) code on their smartphones using apps like [[Alipay]] or [[WeChat]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51439401|title=China launches coronavirus 'close contact detector' app|work=BBC News |date=February 11, 2020}}</ref> The close contact detector can be accessed via popular mobile apps including Alipay. If a potential risk is detected, the app not only recommends self-quarantine, it also alerts local health officials.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chen |first1=Angela |title=China's coronavirus app could have unintended consequences |website=MIT Technology Review |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/615199/coronavirus-china-app-close-contact-surveillance-covid-19-technology/ |access-date=7 March 2020}}</ref>
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In Cannes, France, monitoring software has been used on footage shot by [[CCTV]] cameras, allowing to monitor their compliance to local [[social distancing]] and [[Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic|mask wearing]] during the COVID-19 pandemic. The system does not store identifying data, but rather allows to alert city authorities and police where breaches of the mask and mask wearing rules are spotted (allowing [[Fine (penalty)|fining]] to be carried out where needed). The algorithms used by the monitoring software can be incorporated into existing surveillance systems in public spaces (hospitals, stations, airports, shopping centres, ...) <ref>{{cite news |date=May 4, 2020 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-52529981|title=Coronavirus France: Cameras to monitor masks and social distancing|work=BBC News}}</ref>
Cellphone data is used to locate infected patients in South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and other countries.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Manancourt |first1=Vincent |title=Coronavirus tests Europe's resolve on privacy |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/coronavirus-tests-europe-resolve-on-privacy-tracking-apps-germany-italy/ |access-date=20 March 2020 |work=
===Prevention and management of environmental disasters===
{{See also|Early warning system}}
[[Tsunami]]s can be detected by [[
==Reception==
===Benefits===
{{See also|Techno-progressivism}}
Algorithmic regulation is supposed to be a system of governance where more exact data, collected from citizens via their smart devices and computers, is used to more efficiently organize human life as a collective.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McCormick |first1=Tim |title=A brief exchange with Tim O'Reilly about "algorithmic regulation"
===Criticism===
There are potential risks associated with the use of algorithms in government. Those include:
* [[Algorithmic bias|algorithms becoming susceptible to bias]],<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=https://ash.harvard.edu/files/ash/files/artificial_intelligence_for_citizen_services.pdf|title=Artificial Intelligence for Citizen Services and Government|last=Mehr|first=Hila|date=August 2017|website=ash.harvard.edu|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref>
* a lack of transparency in how an algorithm may make decisions,<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.capgemini.com/consulting/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2017/10/ai-in-public-sector.pdf|title=Unleashing the potential of Artificial Intelligence in the Public Sector|last=Capgemini Consulting|date=2017|website=www.capgemini.com|access-date=2018-12-31|archive-date=2019-01-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190101145156/https://www.capgemini.com/consulting/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2017/10/ai-in-public-sector.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* the accountability for any such decisions.<ref name=":6" />
According to a 2016's book [[Weapons of Math Destruction]], algorithms and [[big data]] are suspected to increase inequality due to opacity, scale and damage.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Verma |first1=Shikha |title=Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy |journal=Vikalpa: The Journal for Decision Makers |date=June 2019 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=97–98 |doi=10.1177/0256090919853933 |s2cid=198779932 |issn=0256-0909|doi-access=free }}</ref>
There is also a serious concern that [[gaming the system|gaming]] by the regulated parties might occur, once more [[Right to explanation|transparency is brought into the decision making by algorithmic governance]], regulated parties might try to manipulate their outcome in own favor and even use [[adversarial machine learning]].<ref name=sstandford/><ref name=socialmachine/> According to [[Yuval Noah Harari|Harari]], the conflict between democracy and dictatorship is seen as a conflict of two different data-processing systems—AI and algorithms may swing the advantage toward the latter by processing enormous amounts of information centrally.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Harari |first1=Story by Yuval Noah |title=Why Technology Favors Tyranny |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/10/yuval-noah-harari-technology-tyranny/568330/ |access-date=11 April 2020 |work=The Atlantic}}</ref>
In 2018, the Netherlands employed an algorithmic system SyRI (Systeem Risico Indicatie) to detect citizens perceived as being high risk for committing [[welfare fraud]], which quietly flagged thousands of people to investigators.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Europe Limits Government by Algorithm. The US, Not So Much |url=https://www.wired.com/story/europe-limits-government-algorithm-us-not-much/ |magazine=Wired |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref> This caused a public protest. The district court of Hague shut down SyRI referencing [[Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights]] (ECHR).<ref>Rechtbank Den Haag 5 February 2020, C-09-550982-HA ZA 18-388 (English), {{ECLI|ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2020:1878}}</ref>
The contributors of the 2019 documentary [[iHuman (2019 film)|iHuman]] expressed apprehension of "infinitely stable dictatorships" created by government AI.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Amber |title='iHuman': IDFA Review |url=https://www.screendaily.com/reviews/ihuman-idfa-review/5144918.article |website=Screen |access-date=21 April 2020}}</ref>
Due to public criticism, the Australian government announced the suspension of [[Robodebt scheme]] key functions in 2019, and a review of all debts raised using the programme.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rinta-Kahila |first1=Tapani |last2=Someh |first2=Ida |last3=Gillespie |first3=Nicole |last4=Indulska |first4=Marta |last5=Gregor |first5=Shirley |title=Algorithmic decision-making and system destructiveness: A case of automatic debt recovery |journal=European Journal of Information Systems |date=4 May 2022 |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=313–338 |doi=10.1080/0960085X.2021.1960905|s2cid=239735326 |doi-access=free |hdl=1885/294609 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
In 2020, algorithms assigning exam grades to students in the [[2020 UK GCSE and A-Level grading controversy|UK sparked open protest]] under the banner "Fuck the algorithm."<ref name="fuckthealgorithm" /> This protest was successful and the grades were taken back.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Reuter |first1=Markus |title=Fuck the Algorithm
In 2020, the US government software [[ATLAS (software)|ATLAS]], which run on [[Amazon Cloud]], sparked uproar from activists and Amazon's own employees.<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Government Is Using an Algorithm to Flag American Citizens for Denaturalization: Report |url=https://gizmodo.com/u-s-government-is-using-an-algorithm-to-flag-american-1847565703 |access-date=21 September 2021 |work=Gizmodo}}</ref>
In 2021, Eticas Foundation
A 2023 Annual Review synthesis highlights that regulating government use of AI requires sociotechnical design that addresses accountability, transparency, and bias.[https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-120522-091626]
====Algorithmic bias and transparency====
{{Main|Algorithmic bias}}
An initial approach towards transparency included the [[Open-source software|open-sourcing of algorithms]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Heald|first=David|title=Transparency: The Key to Better Governance?|
===Public acceptance===
A 2019 poll conducted by [[IE University]]'s Center for the Governance of Change in Spain found that 25% of citizens from selected European countries were somewhat or totally in favor of letting an artificial intelligence make important decisions about how their country is run.<ref>{{cite web |title=European Tech Insights (2019) {{!}} IE CGC |website=Center for the Governance of Change |access-date=11 April 2020 |url=https://docs.ie.edu/cgc/European-Tech-Insights-2019.pdf}}</ref> The following table lists the results by country:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
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| UK || 31%
|}
Researchers found some evidence that when citizens perceive their political leaders or security providers to be untrustworthy, disappointing, or immoral, they prefer to replace them by artificial agents, whom they consider to be more reliable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spatola |first1=Nicolas |last2=Macdorman |first2=Karl F. |title=Why Real Citizens Would Turn to Artificial Leaders |journal=Digital Government: Research and Practice |date=11 July 2021 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=26:1–26:24 |doi=10.1145/3447954 |issn=2691-199X|doi-access=free |hdl=1805/30988 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The evidence is established by survey experiments on university students of all genders.
A 2021 poll by [[IE University]] indicates that 51% of Europeans are in favor of reducing the number of national parliamentarians and reallocating these seats to an algorithm. This proposal has garnered substantial support in Spain (66%), Italy (59%), and Estonia (56%). Conversely, the citizens of Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Sweden largely oppose the idea.<ref name=ie2021>{{cite web |title=EUROPEAN TECH INSIGHTS 2021 |url=https://docs.ie.edu/cgc/IE-CGC-European-Tech-Insights-2021-%28Part-II%29.pdf |website=IE University |access-date=29 June 2024 |date=2021}}</ref> The survey results exhibit significant generational differences. Over 60% of Europeans aged 25–34 and 56% of those aged 34–44 support the measure, while a majority of respondents over the age of 55 are against it. International perspectives also vary: 75% of Chinese respondents support the proposal, whereas 60% of Americans are opposed.<ref name=ie2021/>
==In popular culture==
The 1970 [[David Bowie]] song "[[The Man Who Sold the World (album)|Saviour Machine]]" depicts an algocratic society run by the titular mechanism, which ended famine and war through "logic" but now threatens to cause an apocalypse due to its fear that its subjects have become excessively complacent.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Unterberger |first1=Richie |title="Saviour Machine" – David Bowie |url=https://www.allmusic.com/song/saviour-machine-mt0052219333 |publisher=AllMusic |access-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704103805/https://www.allmusic.com/song/saviour-machine-mt0052219333 |archive-date=4 July 2019}}</ref>
The novels [[Daemon (novel series)|''Daemon'']] (2006) and ''[[Freedom™]]'' (2010) by [[Daniel Suarez (author)|Daniel Suarez]] describe a fictional scenario of global algorithmic regulation.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rieger |first1=Frank |title=Understanding the Daemon |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/medien/english-version-understanding-the-daemon-1621404.html |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=FAZ.NET |language=de}}</ref> [[Matthew De Abaitua]]'s ''If Then'' imagines an algorithm supposedly based on "fairness" recreating a premodern rural economy.<ref>Stainforth, Elizabeth and Jo Lindsay Walton. "Computing Utopia: The Horizons of Computational Economies in History and Science Fiction." Science Fiction Studies, vol. 46 no. 3, 2019,
==See also==
{{Portal|Law}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Anti-corruption]]
* [[Civic technology]]
* [[Code for America]]
* [[
* [[
* [[
* [[Digital divide]]
*[[Distributed ledger technology law]]▼
* [[Digital Nations]]
*[[Dutch childcare benefits scandal]]▼
▲* [[Distributed ledger technology law]]
▲* [[Dutch childcare benefits scandal]]
*[[Lawbot]]▼
* [[
▲* [[Lawbot]]
* [[
* [[
* [[
* [[
* [[Predictive analytics]]
* [[
* [[Smart contract]]
{{div col end}}
==
{{Reflist}}
== General and cited references ==
* {{Cite book |last=Lessig |first=Lawrence |year=2006 |title=Code: Version 2.0 |url=https://lessig.org/product/codev2 |___location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-03914-2 |oclc=133467669}} Wikipedia article: ''[[Code: Version 2.0]]''.
* {{Cite
* {{Cite
* {{
== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|algocracy}}
* [https://dataforpolicy.org/data-for-policy-2017/ Government by Algorithm?] by Data for Policy 2017 Conference
* [https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf Government by Algorithm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815021400/https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ACUS-AI-Report.pdf |date=2022-08-15 }} by [[Stanford University]]
* [https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2019/624262/EPRS_STU(2019)624262_EN.pdf A governance framework for algorithmic accountability and transparency] by [[European Parliament]]
* [https://academic.oup.com/comjnl/article/62/3/448/5070384 Algorithmic Government] by Zeynep Engin and Philip Treleaven, [[University College London]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fsz6Zw1BkTg Algorithmic Government] by Prof. Philip C. Treleaven of [[University College London]]
* [https://ash.harvard.edu/files/ash/files/artificial_intelligence_for_citizen_services.pdf Artificial Intelligence for Citizen Services and Government] by Hila Mehr of [[Harvard University]]
* [https://eticasfoundation.org/oasi/register/ The OASI Register] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241106054417/https://eticasfoundation.org/oasi/register/ |date=2024-11-06 }}, algorithms with social impact
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt11279794/?ref_=nm_flmg_dr_1 ''iHuman''] (Documentary, 2019) by [[Tonje Hessen Schei]]
*
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sr2ga3BBMTc Can An AI Design Our Tax Policy?]
* [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09540962.2020.1821514/ New development: Blockchain—a revolutionary tool for the public sector], An introduction on the Blockchain's usage in the public sector by Vasileios Yfantis
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/cesar_hidalgo_a_bold_idea_to_replace_politicians
[[Category:Government by algorithm| ]]
[[Category:Collaboration]]▼
[[Category:Social networks]]
[[Category:
[[Category:Sustainability]]
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