Government by algorithm: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 00:51, 26 November 2023

Revision as of 08:03, 1 December 2023

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{{Governance|Models}}

'''Government by algorithm'''<ref name=sstandford>{{cite web|author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Government by Algorithm: A Review and an Agenda |url=https://law.stanford.edu/publications/government-by-algorithm-a-review-and-an-agenda/ |website=Stanford Law School |access-date=20 March 2020}}</ref> (also known as '''algorithmic regulation''',<ref name=medina>{{cite journal |last1=Medina |first1=Eden |title=Rethinking algorithmic regulation. |journal=Kybernetes |date=2015 |volume=44 |issue=6/7 |pages=1005–1019 |doi=10.1108/K-02-2015-0052 |url=http://wosc.co/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Medina-Rethinking-Algorithmic-Regulation.pdf}}</ref> '''regulation by algorithms''', '''algorithmic governance''',<ref name="Engin">{{cite journal |last1=Engin |first1=Zeynep |last2=Treleaven |first2=Philip |title=Algorithmic Government: Automating Public Services and Supporting Civil Servants in using Data Science Technologies |journal=The Computer Journal|date=March 2019 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=448–460 |doi=10.1093/comjnl/bxy082|doi-access=free}}</ref> '''algocratic governance''', '''algorithmic legal order''' or '''algocracy'''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danaher |first1=John |title=The Threat of Algocracy: Reality, Resistance and Accommodation |journal=Philosophy & Technology |date=1 September 2016 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=245–268 |doi=10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |s2cid=146674621 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |access-date=26 January 2022 |issn=2210-5441}}</ref>) is an alternative form of [[government]] or [[social order]]ing where the usage of computer [[algorithm]]s is applied to regulations, law enforcement, and generally any aspect of everyday life such as transportation or land registration.<ref name="karen">{{cite journal |last1=Yeung |first1=Karen |title=Algorithmic regulation: A critical interrogation |journal=Regulation & Governance |date=December 2018 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=505–523 |doi=10.1111/rego.12158|s2cid=157086008 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katzenbach |first1=Christian |last2=Ulbricht |first2=Lena |title=Algorithmic governance |journal=Internet Policy Review |date=29 November 2019 |volume=8 |issue=4 |doi=10.14763/2019.4.1424 |hdl=10419/210652 |url=https://policyreview.info/concepts/algorithmic-governance |access-date=19 March 2020 |issn=2197-6775|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abril |first1=Rubén Rodríguez |title=DERECOM. Derecho de la Comunicación. - An approach to the algorithmic legal order and to its civil, trade and financial projection |website=www.derecom.com |url=http://www.derecom.com/secciones/articulos-de-fondo/item/398-an-approach-to-the-algorithmic-legal-order-and-to-its-civil-trade-and-financial-projection |access-date=20 May 2020 |language=es-es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Rule by Algorithm? Big Data and the Threat of Algocracy |url=https://ieet.org/index.php/IEET2/more/danaher20140107 |access-date=20 May 2020 |work=ieet.org}}</ref><ref name=algocracyblockchain>{{citation |last1=Werbach |first1=Kevin |title=The Siren Song: Algorithmic Governance By Blockchain |date=24 September 2018 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3578610}}.</ref> The term "government by algorithm" has appeared in academic literature as an alternative for "algorithmic governance" in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williamson |first1=Ben |title=Decoding identity: Reprogramming pedagogic identities through algorithmic governance |journal=British Educational Research Association Conference |date=January 2013 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4477644 |access-date=26 December 2020}}</ref> A related term, algorithmic regulation, is defined as setting the standard, monitoring and modifying behaviour by means of computational algorithms{{snd}}automation of [[judiciary]] is in its scope.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hildebrandt |first1=Mireille |title=Algorithmic regulation and the rule of law |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=6 August 2018 |volume=376 |issue=2128 |pages=20170355 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2017.0355|pmid=30082301 |bibcode=2018RSPTA.37670355H |doi-access=free}}</ref> In the context of blockchain, it is also known as '''blockchain governance'''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lumineau |first1=Fabrice |last2=Wang |first2=Wenqian |last3=Schilke |first3=Oliver |title=Blockchain Governance—A New Way of Organizing Collaborations? |journal=Organization Science |date=1 March 2021 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=500–521 |doi=10.1287/orsc.2020.1379 |s2cid=225123270 |issn=1047-7039|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Government by algorithm raises new challenges that are not captured in the [[e-government]] literature and the practice of public administration.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Veale |first1=Michael |last2=Brass |first2=Irina |title=Administration by Algorithm? Public Management Meets Public Sector Machine Learning |date=2019 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3375391}}</ref> Some sources equate [[cyberocracy]], which is a hypothetical [[Government#Forms|form of government]] that rules by the effective use of information,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2008/P7745.pdf |title=Cyberocracy, Cyberspace, and Cyberology:Political Effects of the Information Revolution |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1991|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/reprints/2007/RAND_RP222.pdf|title=Cyberocracy is Coming |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1992|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Ronfeldt |first1=David |last2=Varda |first2=Danielle |title=The Prospects for Cyberocracy (Revisited) |date=1 December 2008 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=1325809}}.</ref> with algorithmic governance, although algorithms are not the only means of processing information.<ref>{{cite web |title=Transparency in governance, through cyberocracy |url=https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2019/07/04/transparency-in-governance-through-cyberocracy |website=The Kathmandu Post |first=Bimal Pratap |last=Shah |date=July 4, 2019 |access-date=25 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hudson |first1=Alex |title='Far more than surveillance' is happening and could change how government is run |url=https://metro.co.uk/2019/08/28/far-more-than-surveillance-is-already-in-place-and-cyberocracy-could-change-how-government-is-run-10637802/ |website=Metro |access-date=25 April 2020 |date=28 August 2019}}</ref> [[Nello Cristianini]] and Teresa Scantamburlo argued that the combination of a human society and certain regulation algorithms (such as reputation-based scoring) forms a [[social machine]].<ref name=socialmachine>{{cite journal |last1=Cristianini |first1=Nello |last2=Scantamburlo |first2=Teresa |title=On social machines for algorithmic regulation |journal=AI & Society |date=8 October 2019 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=645–662 |doi=10.1007/s00146-019-00917-8 |arxiv=1904.13316 |bibcode=2019arXiv190413316C |s2cid=140233845 |issn=1435-5655}}</ref>

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===Smart contracts===

[[Smart contract]]s, [[cryptocurrencies]], and [[decentralized autonomous organization]] are mentioned as means to replace traditional ways of governance.<ref name=indiadao>{{cite news |last1=Bindra |first1=Jaspreet |title=Transforming India through blockchain |url=https://www.livemint.com/Technology/UZIex6fPPyAqVuTHqpzZiN/Transforming-India-through-blockchain.html |access-date=31 May 2020 |work=Livemint |date=30 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Finn |first1=Ed |date=10 April 2017 |title=Do digital currencies spell the end of capitalism? |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/political-science/2017/apr/10/do-digital-currencies-spell-the-end-of-capitalism |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref><ref name=algocracyblockchain/> Cryptocurrencies are currencies, which are enabled by algorithms without a governmental [[central bank]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reiff |first1=Nathan |title=Blockchain Explained |website=Investopedia |url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/blockchain.asp |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref> [[Central bank digital currency]] often employs similar technology, but is differentiated from the fact that it does use a central bank. It is soon to be employed by major unions and governments such as the European Union and China. [[Smart contracts]] are self-executable [[contract]]s, whose objectives are the reduction of need in trusted governmental intermediators, arbitrations and enforcement costs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Szabo |first1=Nick |author-link1=Nick Szabo |title=View of Formalizing and Securing Relationships on Public Networks |journal=First Monday |date=1997 |doi=10.5210/fm.v2i9.548 |s2cid=33773111 |url=https://firstmonday.org/article/view/548/469 |access-date=2020-05-31 |archive-date=2022-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410235953/https://firstmonday.org/article/view/548/469 |url-status=dead |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=conbook>{{cite book |last1=Fries |first1=Martin |last2=P. Paal |first2=Boris |title=Smart Contracts |year=2019 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |jstor=j.ctvn96h9r |isbn=978-3-16-156911-1 |language=de}}</ref> A decentralized autonomous organization is an [[organization]] represented by smart contracts that is transparent, controlled by shareholders and not influenced by a central government.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is DAO - Decentralized Autonomous Organizations |url=https://blockchainhub.net/dao-decentralized-autonomous-organization/ |website=BlockchainHub |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Prusty |first=Narayan |date=27 Apr 2017 |title=Building Blockchain Projects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=80EwDwAAQBAJ |___location=Birmingham, UK |publisher=Packt |page=9 |isbn=9781787125339}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Chohan |first1=Usman W. |title=The Decentralized Autonomous Organization and Governance Issues |date=4 December 2017 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3082055}}.</ref> Smart contracts have been discussed for use in such applications as use in (temporary) [[employment contract]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3270867|title=The Gig Economy, Smart Contracts, and Disruption of Traditional Work Arrangements|first1=Seth|last1=Oranburg|first2=Liya|last2=Palagashvili|date=October 22, 2018|via=Social Science Research Network|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3270867}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328657407_A_Blockchain-Based_Decentralized_System_for_Proper_Handling_of_Temporary_Employment_Contracts|title=(PDF) A Blockchain-Based Decentralized System for Proper Handling of Temporary Employment Contracts}}</ref> and automatic transfership of funds and property (i.e. [[inheritance]], upon registration of a [[death certificate]]).<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2017/581948/EPRS_IDA(2017)581948_EN.pdf How blockchain technology could change our lives]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@illuminatesofficial/business-inheritance-in-blockchain-b3fab4613c8c|title=Business inheritance in blockchain|first=Illuminates|last=Official|date=September 11, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inc.com/chris-j-snook/4-small-business-verticals-artificial-intelligence-blockchain-will-destroy-in-coming-decade.html|title=Blockchain and AI are coming to kill these 4 business verticals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://silentnotary.com/#project|title=Silent Notary - Blockchain Notary Service 100% events falsification protection|website=silentnotary.com}}</ref> Some countries such as Georgia and Sweden have already launched blockchain programs focusing on property ([[Title search|land titles]] and [[real estate]] ownership)<ref name=ukrainereuteers>{{cite news |last1=Chavez-Dreyfuss |first1=Gertrude |title=Ukraine launches big blockchain deal with tech firm Bitfury |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-bitfury-blockchain-idUSKBN17F0N2 |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=Reuters |date=17 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bitfury.com/content/downloads/the_bitfury_group_republic_of_georgia_expand_blockchain_pilot_2_7_16.pdf|title=The Bitfury Group and Government of Republic of Georgia Expand Blockchain Pilot}}</ref><ref>[https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/inov_a_00276 A BLOCKCHAIN - Journals Gateway]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/corruption/integrity-forum/academic-papers/Georg%20Eder-%20Blockchain%20-%20Ghana_verified.pdf|title=Digital Transformation: Blockchain and Land Titles}}</ref> Ukraine is also looking at other areas too such as [[Public records|state registers]].<ref name=ukrainereuteers/>

===Algorithms in government agencies===