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[[File:Model Cybernetic Factory.svg|thumb|Model of cybernetic thinking about organisation. On the one hand in reality a system is determined. On the other hand, cybernetic factory can be modeled as a control system.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Cybernetic and Management |date=1959 |publisher=English Universities Press |chapter=XVI}}</ref>]]
Tim O'Reilly suggested that data sources and [[reputation system]]s combined in algorithmic regulation can outperform traditional regulations.<ref name=timoreilly/> For instance, once taxi-drivers are rated by passengers, the quality of their services will improve automatically and "drivers who provide poor service are eliminated".<ref name=timoreilly/> O'Reilly's suggestion is based on the [[control theory|control-theoreric]] concept of [[feedback|feed-back loop]]—[[positive feedback|improvements]] and [[negative feedback|disimprovements]] of reputation enforce desired behavior.<ref name=socialmachine/> The usage of feedfeedback-loops for the management of social systems ishas already been suggested in [[management cybernetics]] by [[Stafford Beer]] before.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beer |first1=Stafford |author-link1=Stafford Beer |title=Platform for change : a message from Stafford Beer. |date=1975 |publisher=J. Wiley |isbn=978-0471948407}}</ref>
These connections are explored by [[Nello Cristianini]] and Teresa Scantamburlo, where the reputation-credit scoring system is modeled as an incentive given to the citizens and computed by a [[social machine]], so that rational agents would be motivated to increase their score by adapting their behaviour. Several ethical aspects of that technology are still being discussed.<ref name=socialmachine/>
===Smart contracts===
[[Smart contract]]s, [[cryptocurrencies]], and [[decentralized autonomous organization]] are mentioned as means to replace traditional ways of governance.<ref name=indiadao>{{cite news |last1=Bindra |first1=Jaspreet |title=Transforming India through blockchain |url=https://www.livemint.com/Technology/UZIex6fPPyAqVuTHqpzZiN/Transforming-India-through-blockchain.html |access-date=31 May 2020 |work=Livemint |date=30 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Finn |first1=Ed |date=10 April 2017 |title=Do digital currencies spell the end of capitalism? |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/political-science/2017/apr/10/do-digital-currencies-spell-the-end-of-capitalism |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref><ref name=algocracyblockchain/> Cryptocurrencies are currencies, which are enabled by algorithms without a governmental [[central bank]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reiff |first1=Nathan |title=Blockchain Explained |website=Investopedia |url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/blockchain.asp |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref> [[Central bank digital currency]] often employs similar technology, but is differentiated from the fact that it does use a central bank. It is soon to be employed by major unions and governments such as the European Union and China. [[Smart contracts]] are self-executable [[contract]]s, whose objectives are the reduction of need in trusted governmental intermediators, arbitrations and enforcement costs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Szabo |first1=Nick |author-link1=Nick Szabo |title=View of Formalizing and Securing Relationships on Public Networks |journal=First Monday |date=1997 |doi=10.5210/fm.v2i9.548 |s2cid=33773111 |url=https://firstmonday.org/article/view/548/469 |access-date=2020-05-31 |archive-date=2022-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410235953/https://firstmonday.org/article/view/548/469 |url-status=dead |doi-access= free}}</ref><ref name=conbook>{{cite book |last1=Fries |first1=Martin |last2=P. Paal |first2=Boris |title=Smart Contracts |year=2019 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |jstor=j.ctvn96h9r |isbn=978-3-16-156911-1 |language=de}}</ref> A decentralized autonomous organization is an [[organization]] represented by smart contracts that is transparent, controlled by shareholders and not influenced by a central government.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is DAO - Decentralized Autonomous Organizations |url=https://blockchainhub.net/dao-decentralized-autonomous-organization/ |website=BlockchainHub |access-date=31 May 2020 |archive-date=24 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524103723/https://blockchainhub.net/dao-decentralized-autonomous-organization/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Prusty |first=Narayan |date=27 Apr 2017 |title=Building Blockchain Projects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=80EwDwAAQBAJ |___location=Birmingham, UK |publisher=Packt |page=9 |isbn=9781787125339}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Chohan |first1=Usman W. |title=The Decentralized Autonomous Organization and Governance Issues |date=4 December 2017 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3082055}}.</ref> Smart contracts have been discussed for use in such applications as use in (temporary) [[employment contract]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3270867|title=The Gig Economy, Smart Contracts, and Disruption of Traditional Work Arrangements|first1=Seth|last1=Oranburg|first2=Liya|last2=Palagashvili|date=October 22, 2018|via=Social Science Research Network|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3270867|ssrn=3270867 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328657407|title=A Blockchain-Based Decentralized System for Proper Handling of Temporary Employment Contracts}}</ref> and automatic transfership of funds and property (i.e. [[inheritance]], upon registration of a [[death certificate]]).<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2017/581948/EPRS_IDA(2017)581948_EN.pdf How blockchain technology could change our lives]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@illuminatesofficial/business-inheritance-in-blockchain-b3fab4613c8c|title=Business inheritance in blockchain|first=Illuminates|last=Official|date=September 11, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inc.com/chris-j-snook/4-small-business-verticals-artificial-intelligence-blockchain-will-destroy-in-coming-decade.html|title=Blockchain and AI are coming to kill these 4 business verticals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://silentnotary.com/#project|title=Silent Notary - Blockchain Notary Service 100% events falsification protection|website=silentnotary.com}}</ref> Some countries such as Georgia and Sweden have already launched blockchain programs focusing on property ([[Title search|land titles]] and [[real estate]] ownership)<ref name=ukrainereuteers>{{cite news |last1=Chavez-Dreyfuss |first1=Gertrude |title=Ukraine launches big blockchain deal with tech firm Bitfury |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-bitfury-blockchain-idUSKBN17F0N2 |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=Reuters |date=17 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bitfury.com/content/downloads/the_bitfury_group_republic_of_georgia_expand_blockchain_pilot_2_7_16.pdf|title=The Bitfury Group and Government of Republic of Georgia Expand Blockchain Pilot}}</ref><ref>[https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/inov_a_00276 A BLOCKCHAIN - Journals Gateway]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/corruption/integrity-forum/academic-papers/Georg%20Eder-%20Blockchain%20-%20Ghana_verified.pdf|title=Digital Transformation: Blockchain and Land Titles}}</ref> Ukraine is also looking at other areas too such as [[Public records|state registers]].<ref name=ukrainereuteers/>
===Algorithms in government agencies===
National health administration entities and organisations such as AHIMA (American Health Information Management Association) hold [[medical record]]s. Medical records serve as the central repository for planning patient care and documenting communication among patient and health care provider and professionals contributing to the patient's care. In the EU, work is ongoing on a [[European Health Data Space]] which supports the use of health data.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/home/en|title=Press corner|website=European Commission - European Commission}}</ref>
US [[Department of Homeland Security]] has employed the software ATLAS, which run on [[Amazon Cloud]]. It scanned more than 16.5 million of records of naturalized Americans and flagged approximately 124,000 of them for manual analysis and review by [[USCIS]] officers regarding [[denaturalization]].<ref name=debal>{{cite news |last1=Biddle |first1=Sam |last2=Saleh |date=August 25, 2021 |first2=Maryam |title=Little-Known Federal Software Can Trigger Revocation of Citizenship |url=https://theintercept.com/2021/08/25/atlas-citizenship-denaturalization-homeland-security/ |access-date=21 September 2021 |work=The Intercept}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cuccinelli Announces USCIS' FY 2019 Accomplishments and Efforts to Implement President Trump's Goals |website=USCIS |url=https://www.uscis.gov/news/news-releases/cuccinelli-announces-uscis-fy-2019-accomplishments-and-efforts-to-implement-president-trumps-goals |access-date=21 September 2021 |date=16 October 2019}}</ref> ThereThey were flagged due to potential fraud, public safety and national security issues. Some of the scanned data came from [[Terrorist Screening Database]] and [[National Crime Information Center]].
The [[NarxCare]] is a US software,{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=41}} which combines data from the prescription registries of various [[U.S. state]]s{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=40}}<ref>{{Cite news|last=Romo|first=Vanessa|date=2018-05-08|title=Walmart Will Implement New Opioid Prescription Limits By End Of Summer|work=[[National Public Radio|NPR]]|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/05/08/609442939/walmart-will-implement-new-opioid-prescription-limits-by-end-of-summer|access-date=2021-10-06}}</ref> and uses [[machine learning]] to generate various three-digit "risk scores" for prescriptions of medications and an overall "Overdose Risk Score", collectively referred to as Narx Scores,{{Sfn|Oliva|2020|p=847}} in a process that potentially includes [[Emergency medical services|EMS]] and criminal justice data{{Sfn|Szalavitz|2021|p=41}} as well as court records.{{Sfn|Oliva|2020|p=848}}
In Estonia, artificial intelligence is used in its [[e-government]] to make it more automated and seamless. A virtual assistant will guide citizens through any interactions they have with the government. Automated and proactive services "push" services to citizens at key events of their lives (including births, bereavements, unemployment, ...). One example is the automated registering of babies when they are born.<ref>See section on smart contracts; this is possible by means of a digital birth certificate, triggering a smart contract</ref> Estonia's [[E-government in Europe#Estonia|X-Road system]] will also be rebuilt to include even more privacy control and accountability into the way the government uses citizen's data.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://govinsider.asia/innovation/marten-kaevats-national-digital-advisor-estonias-vision-for-an-invisible-government/|title=Exclusive: Estonia's vision for an 'invisible government'|date=March 20, 2019}}</ref>
In Costa Rica, the possible digitalization of public procurement activities (i.e. tenders for public works, ...) has been investigated. The paper discussing this possibility mentions that the use of ICT in procurement has several benefits such as increasing transparency, facilitating digital access to public tenders, reducing direct interaction between procurement officials and companies at moments of high integrity risk, increasing outreach and competition, and easier detection of irregularities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/countries/costarica/costa-rica-public-procurement-system.pdf|title=Enhancing the use of competitive tendering in Costa Rica's Public Procurement System}}</ref>
Besides using e-tenders for regular [[public works]] (construction of buildings, roads, ...), e-tenders can also be used for [[reforestation]] projects and other [[carbon sink]] restoration projects.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/forestry-commission/about/procurement|title=Procurement at Forestry Commission|website=GOV.UK}}</ref> [[Carbon sink]] restoration projects [[Climate change mitigation#Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks|may]] be part of the [[nationally determined contributions]] plans in order to reach the national [[Paris Agreement#Effectiveness|Paris agreement goals]].
Government [[procurement]] [[Audit management|audit software]] can also be used.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourceforge.net/software/audit/for-government/|title=Best Government Audit Software - 2023 Reviews & Comparison|website=sourceforge.net}}</ref><ref>[https://revista.tcu.gov.br/ojs/index.php/RTCU/article/download/1379/1561 Audit app: an effective tool for government procurement assurance]</ref> Audits are performed in some countries after [[Subsidy#Preventing fraud|subsidies have been received]].
Some government agencies provide track and trace systems for services they offer. An example is [[track and trace]] for applications done by citizens (i.e. driving license procurement).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/track-your-driving-licence-application|title=Track your driving licence application|website=GOV.UK}}</ref>
Some government services use [[issue tracking system|issue tracking systems]] to keep track of ongoing issues.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/services/track-progress-reported-road-fault-or-issue|title=Track progress of a reported road fault or issue | nidirect|date=May 18, 2018|website=www.nidirect.gov.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://flsenate.gov/Tracker/help |title=Senate Tracker Help – The Florida Senate |website=flsenate.gov |access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.congress.gov/legislation |title=Legislative Search Results |website=congress.gov |access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://govtrack.us |title=GovTrack.us: Tracking the U.S. Congress |website=govtrack.us |access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref>
===Justice by algorithm===
Judges' decisions in Australia are supported by the [[Split Up (expert system)|"Split Up" software]] in casecases of determining the percentage of a split after a [[divorce]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stranieri |first1=Andrew |last2=Zeleznikow |first2=John |title=Proceedings of the fourth international conference on Information and knowledge management - CIKM '95 |chapter=Levels of reasoning as the basis for a formalisation of argumentation |date=2 December 1995 |pages=333–339 |doi=10.1145/221270.221608 |chapter-url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/221270.221608 |access-date=5 February 2022 |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|isbn=0897918126 |s2cid=12179742 }}</ref> [[COMPAS (software)|COMPAS]] software is used in the USA to assess the risk of [[recidivism]] in courts.<ref>{{cite news |title=A computer program used for bail and sentencing decisions was labeled biased against blacks. It's actually not that clear. |author=Sam Corbett-Davies |author2=Emma Pierson |author3=Avi Feller |author4=Sharad Goel |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/10/17/can-an-algorithm-be-racist-our-analysis-is-more-cautious-than-propublicas/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=October 17, 2016 |access-date=January 1, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |author=Aaron M. Bornstein |title=Are Algorithms Building the New Infrastructure of Racism? |magazine=[[Nautilus (science magazine)|Nautilus]] |date=December 21, 2017 |url=http://nautil.us/issue/55/trust/are-algorithms-building-the-new-infrastructure-of-racism |access-date=January 2, 2018 |issue=55 |archive-date=January 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103011728/http://nautil.us/issue/55/trust/are-algorithms-building-the-new-infrastructure-of-racism |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to the statement of Beijing Internet Court, China is the first country to create an internet court or cyber court.<ref name=internetcourt>{{cite web |title=Beijing Internet Court launches online litigation service center |url=https://english.bjinternetcourt.gov.cn/2019-07/01/c_190.htm |website=english.bjinternetcourt.gov.cn |access-date=13 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=China Now Has AI-Powered Judges |url=https://radiichina.com/china-now-has-ai-powered-robot-judges/ |access-date=13 April 2020 |work=RADII {{!}} Culture, Innovation, and Life in today's China |date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fish |first1=Tom |title=AI shock: China unveils 'cyber court' complete with AI judges and verdicts via chat app |url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/science/1214019/ai-china-cyber-court-artificial-intelligence-judges-verdicts-chat-app |access-date=13 April 2020 |work=Express.co.uk |date=6 December 2019}}</ref> The Chinese AI judge is a [[virtual actor|virtual recreation]] of an actual female judge. She "will help the court's judges complete repetitive basic work, including litigation reception, thus enabling professional practitioners to focus better on their trial work".<ref name=internetcourt/> Also, [[Estonia]] plans to employ artificial intelligence to decide small-claim cases of less than €7,000.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Can AI Be a Fair Judge in Court? Estonia Thinks So |url=https://www.wired.com/story/can-ai-be-fair-judge-court-estonia-thinks-so/ |access-date=13 April 2020 |magazine=Wired}}</ref>
[[Lawbot]]s can perform tasks that are typically done by paralegals or young associates at law firms. One such technology used by US law firms to assist in legal research is from ROSS Intelligence,<ref>"ROSS Intelligence Lands Another Law Firm Client." The American Lawyer. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 June 2017. <http://www.americanlawyer.com/id=1202769384977/ROSS-Intelligence-Lands-Another-Law-Firm-Client>.</ref> and others vary in sophistication and dependence on scripted [[algorithm]]s.<ref>CodeX Techindex. Stanford Law School, n.d. Web. 16 June 2017. <https://techindex.law.stanford.edu/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331081439/https://techindex.law.stanford.edu/ |date=2022-03-31 }}>.</ref> Another legal technology [[chatbot]] application is [[DoNotPay]].
Besides use in grading, software systems like AI were used in preparation for college entrance exams.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/18/education/artificial-intelligence-tutors-teachers.html|title=The Machines Are Learning, and So Are the Students|first=Craig S.|last=Smith|work=The New York Times |date=December 18, 2019|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref>
AI teaching assistants are being developed and used for education (e.g., Georgia Tech's Jill Watson)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.educationworld.com/could-artificial-intelligence-replace-our-teachers|title=Could Artificial Intelligence Replace Our Teachers? | Education World}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/a-professor-built-an-ai-teaching-assistant-for-his-courses-and-it-could-shape-the-future-of-education-2017-3|title=A professor built an AI teaching assistant for his courses — and it could shape the future of education|first=Todd|last=Leopold|website=Business Insider}}</ref> and there is also an ongoing debate on whetherthe perhapspossibility teachersof canteachers bebeing entirely replaced by AI systems (e.g., in [[homeschooling]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/roybi-robot/the-future-of-homeschooling-how-robots-are-changing-in-home-education-473ede32e228|title=The Future of Homeschooling: How Robots are Changing In-Home Education|first=Roybi|last=Robot|date=September 23, 2018}}</ref>
===AI politicians===
In 2018, [[Cesar Hidalgo]] presented the idea of [[augumented democracy]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perez |first1=Oren |title=Collaborative е-Rulemaking, Democratic Bots, and the Future of Digital Democracy |journal=Digital Government: Research and Practice |date=31 January 2020 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1145/3352463 |s2cid=211519367 |language=en |issn=2691-199X|doi-access=free }}</ref> In an augumented democracy, legislation is done by [[digital twin]]s of every single person.
In 2019, AI-powered messenger [[chatbot]] SAM participated in the discussions on social media connected to an electoral race in New Zealand.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sarmah |first1=Harshajit |title=World's First AI-powered Virtual Politician SAM Joins The Electoral Race In New Zealand |url=https://analyticsindiamag.com/worlds-first-ai-powered-virtual-politician-sam-joins-the-electoral-race-in-new-zealand/ |access-date=11 April 2020 |work=Analytics India Magazine |date=28 January 2019}}</ref> The creator of SAM, Nick Gerritsen, believesbelieved SAM willwould be advanced enough to run as a [[Virtual politician|candidate]] by late 2020, when New Zealand hashad its next general election.<ref>{{cite news |title=Meet SAM, world's first AI politician that hopes to run for New Zealand election in 2020 |date=26 November 2017 |work=Hindustan Times |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meet-sam-world-s-first-ai-politician-that-hopes-to-run-for-new-zealand-election-in-2020/story-TPnkQNM4UQae3IgcifZq4K.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126111001/http://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meet-sam-world-s-first-ai-politician-that-hopes-to-run-for-new-zealand-election-in-2020/story-TPnkQNM4UQae3IgcifZq4K.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 26, 2017 |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref>
In 2022, the chatbot "Leader Lars" or "Leder Lars" was nominated for [[The Synthetic Party]] to run in the 2022 [[Danish Realm|Danish]] parliamentary election,<ref>{{cite news |last=Sternberg |first=Sarah |date=20 June 2022 |title=Danskere vil ind på den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens |trans-title=Danes want to enter the political scene with artificial intelligence |newspaper=[[Jyllands-Posten]] |url=https://jyllands-posten.dk/kultur/ECE14145385/danskere-vil-ind-paa-den-politiske-scene-med-kunstig-intelligens/ |access-date=2022-06-20}}</ref> and was built by the artist collective [https://computerlars.com Computer Lars].<ref>{{cite news |last=Diwakar |first=Amar |date=2022-08-22 |title=Can an AI-led Danish party usher in an age of algorithmic politics? |trans-title= |newspaper=[[TRT World]] |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/can-an-ai-led-danish-party-usher-in-an-age-of-algorithmic-politics-60008 |access-date=2022-08-22}}</ref> Leader Lars differed from earlier virtual politicians by leading a [[political party]] and by not pretending to be an objective candidate.<ref>{{cite news |last=Xiang |first=Chloe |date=13 October 2022 |title=This Danish Political Party Is Led by an AI |trans-title= |newspaper=[[Motherboard (website)|Vice: Motherboard]] |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/jgpb3p/this-danish-political-party-is-led-by-an-ai |access-date=2022-10-13}}</ref> This chatbot engaged in critical discussions on politics with users from around the world.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hearing |first=Alice |date=14 October 2022 |title=A.I. chatbot is leading a Danish political party and setting its policies. Now users are grilling it for its stance on political landmines |url=https://fortune.com/2022/10/14/ai-chatbot-leader-lars-the-synthetic-party-discord-russia-ukraine-crimea-policy/ |work=Fortune }}</ref>
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