|
'''Bernard Marx''' is one of the main characters in the novel ''[[Brave New World]]'' by [[Aldous Huxley]]. Bernard is viewed as an outsider by his peers, and it is rumoured that the worker who was in charge of his bottle put some alcohol in it by mistake, owing to Bernard's abnormally short height and 'ugly' features.
{{mergefrom|Latin conjugation}} {{mergefrom|Latin declension}}
Members of the higher castes are conditioned to dislike the shorter lower castes and this places Bernard in a grey area — he is an [[Alpha-Plus]], but is not quite part of the Alpha-Plus set. This has probably led to some of his other peculiarities. He does not enjoy the drug [[Soma (Brave New World)|soma]] or the "feelies", chooses to spend time alone, and is not promiscuous. In addition, Bernard harbours a kind of dissatisfaction with some aspects of the society and tends to be unsociable and aloof towards his more hedonistic peers. Despite his somewhat negative qualities, Bernard is profoundly intelligent and a bit philosophical.
[[Latin]], unlike [[English Language|English]], has a very flexible word order because the language is highly [[Inflection|inflected]].
It has been suggested that his name is a crude amalgamation of [[George Bernard Shaw]] and [[Karl Marx]]. To some extent he acts as the novel's [[false protagonist]], being the major 'outcast' in the novel until this role is replaced largely by [[John the Savage]]. After John appears, Bernard becomes accepted as a hero, and he attempts to become promiscuous and take soma, thus becoming more fully integrated into his society.
==Nouns==
Also, Bernards's isolation is amplified early in the book when he attends a meeting for people to "become one." At this meeting 12 people take soma and become one with Ford (the man who started this idea of conformity, the book is set in A.F. 642, A.F. meaning after Ford). However, Bernard feels no effect from the soma and can only focus on one woman's unibrow.
===Cases===
<br />
On the noun tables there are usually 5 (sometimes 7) [[declension|case]]s:
<br />
*''Nominative:'' indicates the subject of the sentence, or a predicate nominative: ''Cornelia'' is a girl.
{{Brave New World}}
*''Vocative:'' case of direct address: ''Cornelia,'' go outside. This generally looks exactly like Nominative, except in second declension masculine nouns ending in "us" where the "us" is turned to an "e", and second declension masculine nouns ending in "ius", where the "ius" is turned into a long "i". E.g., "servus" becomes "serve", and "filius" becomes "fili". The only nouns with a distinct vocative case ending are those in the second declension and those third declension nouns borrowed from Ancient Greek (where the final syllable is often shortened).
{{lit-char-stub}}
*''Genitive:'' The genitive is always dependent on other elements in the sentence. It usually can be translated by the English prepositon ''of''. Its uses can be broken down into three major categories:
:::1) Genitives dependent on nouns.
:::2) Genitives dependent on adjectives.
:::3) Genitives dependent on verbs.
[[Category:Characters in written fiction|Marx, Bernard]]
**Genitives dependent on nouns:
[[Category:Brave New World|Marx, Bernard]]
The genitive allows one noun to limit or define another noun which does not denote the same thing. [In English, we can say ''dog house'' or ''clam shell'' using one noun to define or limit another which does not denote the same thing. That's not done in Latin. In Latin, the limiting noun must be turned into a adjective (''dog house'' => ''canine house'') or be put in the genitive (''clam shell'' => ''shell of a clam'').] Common uses include:
[[Category:Fictional drug users|Marx, Bernard]]
***possessive genitive: The hair ''of Cornelia'' is long.
[[Category:Fictional characters who have been genetically engineered|Marx, Bernard]]
***objective genitive: The construction ''of the building.'' Here the genitive is the object of a verbal action implied by the noun it modifies.
***genitive of description: ''A man of great courage''
***partitive genitive: Many ''of my friends'' went to the city.
[[es:Bernard Marx]]
**Genitives dependent on adjectives:
***If an adjective implies a vebal notion, it may take a genitive to indicate the object of that action: desirous ''of money''. (Compare the objective genitive above).
***Sometimes genitives are added to adjectives to denote in reference to what an adjective is true: tired ''of war.''
**Genitives dependent on verbs:
Some Latin verbs can take the genitive, including verbs of remembering, forgetting, accusing, condemning, acquitting, and some verbs that indicate emotional reactions.
*''Dative:'' indicates an indirect object: He gave the cookie ''to the boy''.
Other uses:
**''Dative of agent:'' Expresses agent when used with the future passive periphrastic, also known as the gerundive: ''The boy'' must do the work. (t
ranslated literally as "The work must be done ''by the boy''")
**
''Dative of Reference'' often used with ''Dative of Purpose'' (named collectively as the ''Double Dative''): The general sent troops ''as aid'' (for the purpose of aid) ''for the general'' (with reference to the general).
**''Dative of Possession'': ''Mihi pecunia est.'' I have money. Literally: "The money is to me."
*''Accusative:'' indicates a direct object: Cornelia killed ''Marcus''. Also can be used with a preposition: We went into ''the bedroom''.
The accusative may also indicate the extent of time or space.
*''Ablative:'' many uses, including conditions where English would use a preposition instead. Often used when someone or something is being passive, rather than active, like "He was at the tree," rather than "He climbed the tree."
**the object of a preposition: He is inside the ''palace''.
**time: ''At the tenth hour'' he died.
**means: He beat me ''with a stick.'' OR He yelled ''with a great voice.''
**agent of a passive verb: The cookie was thrown ''by Cornelia'' across the room.
*''Locative:'' used to describe the ___location or movement of a person or thing. The locative only applies to cities, towns, and small islands, and is not used for countries or continents. Also, a few nouns survived (such as ''domus,'' meaning house, and ''rus, ruris,'' meaning countryside).
====Overview====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Case
!General Usage
!Note
|-
|Nominative
|Subject
|-
|Vocative
|Direct address
|Only sometimes shown as a case
|-
|Genitive
|Possessive
|-
|Dative
|Indirect object
|-
|Accusative
|Direct object
|Can also be the object of a preposition.
|-
|Ablative
|Varied uses
|}
===Declensions===
There are 5 [[declension]]s ([[Latin]]: ''declinationes'', singular ''declinatio''). Most nouns in the 1st are feminine, most in the 2nd are masculine and neuter (usually distinguished by the m. ''-us'' and n. ''-um'' endings), 3rd can either be masculine, feminine, or neuter, 4th is either masculine or neuter, and 5th is usually feminine with a couple masculine. It is necessary to learn the gender of each noun for it is often impossible to discern the gender from the word itself. One must also memorize to which declension each noun belongs in order to be able to decline it. Therefore latin nouns are often memorized with their genitive (rex, regis) as this gives a good indication for the declension to use and reveals the stem of the word (reg, not rex).
==== First declension ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|'''singular'''
|'''plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Nominative'''
|puell'''a'''
|puell'''ae'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Vocative'''
|puell'''a'''
|puell'''ae'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Genitive'''
|puell'''ae'''
|puell'''ārum'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Dative'''
|puell'''ae'''
|puell'''īs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Accusative'''
|puell'''am'''
|puell'''ās'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Ablative'''
|puell'''ā'''
|puell'''īs'''
|}
Note: The words '''dea''', ''goddess'', and '''fīlia''', ''daughter'', take the ending '''ābus''' instead of '''ās''' in the dative and ablative plural; otherwise they would look exactly the same as ''god'', '''deīs''' and ''son'', '''fīliīs'''.
==== Second declension ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|'''singular'''
|'''plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Nominative'''
|amīc'''us'''
|amīc'''ī'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Vocative'''
|amīc'''e'''
|amīc'''ī'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Genitive'''
|amīc'''ī'''
|amīc'''ōrum'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Dative'''
|amīc'''ō'''
|amīc'''īs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Accusative'''
|amīc'''um'''
|amīc'''ōs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Ablative'''
|amīc'''ō'''
|amīc'''īs'''
|}
==== Second declension - neuter nouns ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|'''singular'''
|'''plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Nominative'''
|verb'''um'''
|verb'''a'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Vocative'''
|verb'''um'''
|verb'''a'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Genitive'''
|verb'''ī'''
|verb'''ōrum'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Dative'''
|verb'''ō'''
|verb'''īs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Accusative'''
|verb'''um'''
|verb'''a'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Ablative'''
|verb'''ō'''
|verb'''īs'''
|}
Note: Nominative and accusative cases of neuter nouns always end the same.
==== Third declension ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|'''singular'''
|'''plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Nominative'''
|rēx
|rēg'''ēs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Vocative'''
|rēx
|rēg'''ēs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Genitive'''
|rēg'''is'''
|rēg'''um'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Dative'''
|rēg'''ī'''
|rēg'''ibus'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Accusative'''
|rēg'''em'''
|rēg'''ēs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Ablative'''
|rēg'''e'''
|rēg'''ibus'''
|}
==== Third declension - neuter nouns====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|'''singular'''
|'''plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Nominative'''
|nōmen
|nōmin'''a'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Vocative'''
|nōmen
|nōmin'''a'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Genitive'''
|nōmin'''is'''
|nōmin'''um'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Dative'''
|nōmin'''ī'''
|nōmin'''ibus'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Accusative'''
|nōmen
|nōmin'''a'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Ablative'''
|nōmin'''e'''
|nōmin'''ibus'''
|}
Note: Nominative and accusative cases of neuter nouns always end the same.
==== Third declension - i-stem neuter nouns ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|'''singular'''
|'''plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Nominative'''
|mare
|maria'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Vocative'''
|mare
|maria'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Genitive'''
|mar'''is'''
|mar'''īum'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Dative'''
|mar'''ī'''
|mar'''ibus'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Accusative'''
|mare
|maria'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Ablative'''
|mar'''ī'''
|mar'''ibus'''
|}
Note: Nominative and accusative cases of neuter nouns always end the same.
==== Fourth declension ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|'''singular'''
|'''plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Nominative'''
|spīrit'''us'''
|spīrit'''ūs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Vocative'''
|spīrit'''us'''
|spīrit'''ūs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Genitive'''
|spīrit'''ūs'''
|spīrit'''uum'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Dative'''
|spīrit'''uī'''
|spīrit'''ibus'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Accusative'''
|spīrit'''um'''
|spīrit'''ūs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Ablative'''
|spīrit'''ū'''
|spīrit'''ibus'''
|}
==== Fourth declension - neuter nouns====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|'''singular'''
|'''plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Nominative'''
|corn'''ū'''
|corn'''ua'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Vocative'''
|corn'''ū'''
|corn'''ua'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Genitive'''
|corn'''ūs'''
|corn'''uum'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Dative'''
|corn'''ū'''
|corn'''ibus'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Accusative'''
|corn'''ū'''
|corn'''ua'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Ablative'''
|corn'''ū'''
|corn'''ibus'''
|}
Note: Nominative and accusative cases of neuter nouns always end the same.
<p>The dative singular of 4th declension neuter nouns ends in -'''ū''', <br />
while for masculine and feminine 4th declension nouns it ends in -'''uī'''.</p>
==== Fifth declension ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|'''singular'''
|'''plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Nominative'''
|di'''ēs'''
|di'''ēs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Vocative'''
|di'''ēs'''
|di'''ēs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Genitive'''
|di'''ēī'''
|di'''ērum'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Dative'''
|di'''ēī'''
|di'''ēbus'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Accusative'''
|di'''em'''
|di'''ēs'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Ablative'''
|di'''ē'''
|di'''ēbus'''
|}
LAURENS DEAD SEXY!
==Adjectives==
All adjectives must agree with the noun they describe in [[number]], [[case]] and [[grammatical gender|gender]]. All nouns are either [[feminine]], [[masculine]], or [[neuter]]. Genders are grammatical, and do not necessarily correspond to the sex of the object.
Adjectives are either 1/2nd declension or 3rd declension. In 1/2nd declensions, ''-a'' endings are treated as feminine and are declined like 1st declension nouns, and ''-us'' endings are treated as masculine, and ''-um'' endings are treated as neuter and both are declined like second declension nouns.
For example:
*''Cornelia bona'' (feminine) (good Cornelia)
*''Cornelius bonus'' (masculine) (good Cornelius)
In 3rd declension adjectives, for masculine and feminine, most of the time there are no changes which are needed to be made to match gender as both masculine and feminine decline the same (make note that in the ablative usually you use an ''-i'' instead of ''-e'' as most 3rd declension adjectives are ''-i'' stemmed.). Neuter has one important difference, as nominative and accusative in all declensions are the same (''-um'' for 2nd etc.) and for plural nominative and accusative have ''-a'' (all neuters in all declensions do this as well).
Adjectives can also have comparative forms and superlative forms. ''Fortior'' is 'braver' (comparative). ''Fortissimus'' is 'bravest' (superlative). If you drop the ending (''-a, -us, -um'') and place ''-ior'' to get the comparative ('braver', 'quite brave', 'rather brave', 'too brave') for the masculine and feminine genders. For the neuter, you drop the ending (''-a, -us, -um'') and add ''-ius''. Adding ''-issimus'', or ''-issima'' to make 'most brave', 'very brave', or 'exceedingly brave' (if necessary).
*''Cornelia est fortior quam Cornelius.''<br />
Cornelia is braver than Cornelius.
(''quam'' after a comparative is 'than', otherwise it usually is feminine singular relative pronoun).
*''Cornelia est fortissima.'' (Cornelia is the bravest.)
Also, there are irregular adjectives in Latin, just as there are irregular verbs and nouns. For example, the adjective meaning 'difficult' in Latin is ''difficilis'' in the positive form. In the comparative, the adjective changes into ''difficilior'' for the masculine and feminine genders, and into ''difficilius'' for the neuter. However, in the superlative, the adjective becomes ''difficillimus''. In this case, the irregular adjective does not have the typical superlative ending. Other adjectives like ''bonus; melior, melius; optimus'', meaning ''good, better, best'', will not only have a different superlative form, but change their bases throughout the different levels of adjectives.
==Pronouns==
In Latin there is no [[indefinite article]] or [[definite article]]- 'a' or 'the'. They can be replaced by other [[adjectival]]s such as ''ille'' (forms of ''ille'' gradually changed into simply ''le'' or ''la'' as in the modern [[Romance languages]] today), ''haec, ea, id, is'' etc.
==Verbs==
There are four [[grammatical conjugation|conjugations]] in Latin. A verb either falls into one of these conjugations or is considered irregular. In Latin, a verb is defined by its [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical mood|mood]] and [[grammatical voice|voice]]. This gives rise to a large number of forms of each verb - 120, in fact. They are generally learnt in groups of 6, corresponding to a particular mood, tense, and voice. Each verb has three stems - a present stem, a perfect stem, and a supine stem, to which various endings are added to make individual forms of verbs.
===Uses of the tenses===
There are six [[grammatical tense|tenses]] ([[Latin]]: ''tempus'') in Latin. They are:
*''Present'', ([[Latin]]: ''praesens'') describes actions happening at the time of speaking: The slave ''carries'' the wine jar.
*''Imperfect'', ([[Latin]]: ''imperfectum'') describes actions continuing in the past: The slave ''was carrying'' the wine jar.
*''Future'', ([[Latin]]: ''futurum simplex'') describes actions taking place in the future: The slave ''will carry'' the wine jar.
*''Perfect'', ([[Latin]]: ''perfectum'') describes actions completed by the present: He ''has taught'' (or ''taught'') the boy.
*''Pluperfect'', ([[Latin]]: ''plusquamperfectum'') describes actions occurring before another past action: He ''had taught'' the boy. Notice the difference, it's important.
*''Future Perfect'', ([[Latin]]: ''futurum exactum'') describes actions that will be completed some time in the future: By tomorrow, he ''will have sent'' the letter.
There are three [[grammatical mood|moods]] ([[Latin]]: ''modus''):
*''Indicative'', ([[Latin]]: ''indicativus'') which states facts: That slave ''is carrying'' a wine jar.
*''Subjunctive'', ([[Latin]]: ''coniunctivus'') which is used for possibilities, intentions, necessities etc: It is necessary that the centurion ''defeat'' the barbarians.
*''Imperative'', ([[Latin]]: ''imperativus'') used for commands: "''Carry'' this wine jar!"
There are two [[grammatical voice|voices]] ([[Latin]]: ''genus''):
*''Active'', ([[Latin]]: ''activum'') where the verb is done by the subject: The slave ''carried'' the wine jar
*''Passive'', ([[Latin]]: ''passivum'') where the verb is done to the subject: The wine jar ''was carried'' by the slave
With this information, we can sort the verbs into their groups of six, starting with the first conjugation, ''portare'', to carry, as follows:
===Active voice===
====Indicative====
The stem of a verb is the infinitive (second principle part) with the -re removed, in general. The perfect stem is the third principle part with the -i removed, in general.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Present'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|port'''ō'''
|portā'''mus'''
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portā'''s'''
|portā'''tis'''
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|porta'''t'''
|porta'''nt'''
|}
Present stem + personal endings
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Imperfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portā'''bam'''
|portā'''bāmus'''
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portā'''bās'''
|portā'''bātis'''
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portā'''bat'''
|portā'''bant'''
|}
Present stem + -ba- + personal endings
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Future'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portā'''bō'''
|portā'''bimus'''
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portā'''bis'''
|portā'''bitis'''
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portā'''bit'''
|portā'''bunt'''
|}
Present stem + -bi- + personal endings (note that the -bi- changes to -bu- in 3rd person plural)
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Perfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portāv'''ī'''
|portāv'''imus
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portāv'''istī'''
|portāv'''istis'''
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portāv'''it'''
|portāv'''ērunt'''
|}
Perfect stem + perfect endings
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Pluperfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portāv'''eram'''
|portāv'''erāmus'''
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portāv'''erās'''
|portāv'''erātis'''
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portāv'''erat'''
|portāv'''erant'''
|}
Perfect stem + imperfect of sum, esse
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Future Perfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portāv'''erō'''
|portāv'''erimus'''
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portāv'''eris'''
|portāv'''eritis'''
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portāv'''erit'''
|portāv'''erint'''
|}
Perfect stem + future of sum, esse (except -erint because -erunt is used in perfect tense 3rd person plural)
<br /><br />
====Subjunctive====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Present'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portem
|portēmus
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portēs
|portētis
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portet
|portent
|}
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Imperfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portārem
|portārēmus
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portārēs
|portārētis
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portāret
|portārent
|}
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Perfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portāverim
|portāverimus
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portāveris
|portāveritis
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portāverit
|portāverint
|}
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Pluperfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portāvissem
|portāvissēmus
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portāvissēs
|portāvissētis
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portāvisset
|portāvissent
|}
<br /><br />
Note that there is no Future or Future Perfect in the Subjunctive Mood.
===Passive voice===
====Indicative====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Present'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|porto'''r'''
|portā'''mur'''
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portā'''ris'''
|portā'''minī'''
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portā'''tur'''
|porta'''ntur'''
|}
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Imperfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portā'''bar'''
|portā'''bāmur'''
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portā'''bāris'''
|portā'''bāminī'''
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portā'''bātur'''
|portā'''bantur'''
|}
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Future'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portā'''bor'''
|portā'''bimur'''
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portā'''beris'''
|portā'''biminī'''
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portā'''bitur'''
|portā'''buntur'''
|}
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Perfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portātus, -a, -um sum
|portātī sumus
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portātus es
|portātī estis
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portātus est
|portātī sunt
|}
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Pluperfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portātus eram
|portātī erāmus
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portātus erās
|portātī erātis
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portātus erat
|portātī erant
|}
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Future Perfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portātus erō
|portātī erimus
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portātus eris
|portātī eritis
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portātus erit
|portātī erunt
|}
<br /><br />
====Subjunctive====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Present'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|porter
|portēmur
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portēris
|portēminī
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portētur
|portentur
|}
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Imperfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portārer
|portārēmur
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portārēris
|portārēminī
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portārētur
|portārentur
|}
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Perfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portātus sim
|portātī sīmus
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portātus sīs
|portātī sītis
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portātus sit
|portātī sint
|}
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Pluperfect'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|portātus essem
|portātī essēmus
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|portātus essēs
|portātī essētis
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|portātus esset
|portātī essent
|}
<br /><br />
Notice that the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses passive are compound tenses, composed of the past participle and a form of ''esse'', to be. Notice also that the participle is plural in the plural forms.
There are six additional forms of a verb, the six infinitives. These are used in the indirect statement, a very common construction in Latin. The infinitives are:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|'''Active'''
|'''Passive'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Present'''
|portāre
|portārī
|-
|align="right"|'''Perfect'''
|portāvisse
|portātus esse
|-
|align="right"|'''Future'''
|portāturus esse
|portātum īrī
|}
<br /><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|Translation
|'''Active'''
|'''Passive'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Present'''
|to carry
|to be carried
|-
|align="right"|'''Perfect'''
|to have carried
|to have been carried
|-
|align="right"|'''Future'''
|to be going to carry
|to be going to be carried
|}
<br /><br />
There are three other conjugations in Latin. Some guidelines on how to apply the rules for the first conjugation onto the others are given below.
First conjugation, ''portāre'', to carry
Present stem: port- (porte- in subjunctive)<br />
Perfect stem: portāv-<br />
Past participle: portātus<br />
Second conjugation, ''docēre'', to teach
Present stem: docē- (doceā- in subjunctive)<br />
Perfect stem: docu-<br />
Past participle: doctus<br />
Third conjugation, ''trahere'', to drag
Present stem: trah- (trahā- in subjunctive)<br />
Perfect stem: trax-<br />
Past participle: tractus<br />
Fourth conjugation, ''audīre'', to hear
Present stem: audī- (audiā- in subjunctive)<br />
Perfect stem: audīv- or audi-<br />
Past participle: audītus<br />
The third and fourth conjugations form their Future tense differently from the first and second:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Future'''
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|-
|align="right"|'''1st Person'''
|traham
|trahēmus
|-
|align="right"|'''2nd Person'''
|trahēs
|trahētis
|-
|align="right"|'''3rd Person'''
|trahet
|trahent
|}
<br /><br />
''audīre'' follows the same pattern in the Future as ''trahere''
==Latin sentence construction and rules of subordination==
The Latin language is difficult to learn because of its rigid tense and subordination system. Many modern languages are analytic, where the grammatical role of a word is expressed by position, while in Latin the syntactic role of a word is expressed by declension generating a sentence that does not depend on word order; for example, Tulliam Marcus amat, amat Marcus Tulliam, Marcus Tulliam amat, and Marcus amat Tulliam all mean "Marcus loves Tullia."
Another typical feature of Latin grammar is the predominance of concrete words and expression. This in striking opposition to ancient Greek, which is a more ductile language. A sentence such as "I believe a god exists" in Latin is "credo deum esse," which literally means "I believe that there is a god" or "I believe a god to exist." But the most rigid and specific rule in Latin is the ''consecutio temporum'', the same rule inherited by Italian but much more complex and rigid.
This rule gives order to the tense relationship in subordinate sentences in order to express anteriority, contemporaneity, and posteriority. The rule orders that in the presence of a principal verb in the regent sentence, the subordinate has to use the subjunctive:
*Present for contemporaneity.
*Perfect for anteriority.
*Future participle of the verb plus present subjunctive of ''sum'' to express posteriority (because there is no subjunctive future)
When the regent sentence has a past tense verb, the rule orders that the subordinate sentence uses the subjunctive:
*Past for contemporarity.
*Pluperfect for anteriority.
*Future participle of the verb plus imperfect subjunctive of the verb sum.
Some examples:
*Ignoro quid agas (I don't know what you are doing)
*Ignoro quid egeris (I don't know what you have done)
*Ignoro quid acturus sis (I don't know what you will do)
*Ignoravi quid ageres (I didn't know what you were doing
*Ignoravi quid egisses (I didn't know what you had done)
*Ignoravi quid acturus esses (I didn't know what you would do)
[[Category:Latin language]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
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[[ja:%E3%83%A9%E3%83%86%E3%83%B3%E8%AA%9E%E3%81%AE%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95]]
[[la:Grammatica Latina]]
[[nl:Latijnse grammatica]]
[[vi:Ngữ pháp Latinh]]
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