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{{stub|Africa}}
{{da tradurre|inglese}}
[[Image:Djembe2.jpg|thumb|right|Uno djembe tradizionale]]
[[Image:Djembe.jpg|thumb|right|Uno djembe di produzione industriale]]
Lo '''djembe''' (trascritto anche come '''djembè''', '''djembé''', '''jenbe''', '''jembe''', '''djimbe''' e secondo altre varianti) è un [[tamburo]] a calice originario dell'[[Africa Occidentale]] e oggi diffuso in tutto il mondo.
==Struttura==
Gli djembe sono tamburi di grandi dimensioni, in genere intorno ai 30 cm di diametro e 60 cm di altezza (ma ci sono ampi margini di variabilità). Il corpo, cavo, ha una tipica forma a calice. La membrana, tradizionalmente, è in pelle di [[capra]].
==Suono e tecnica==
Lo djembe si distingue fra i [[membranofoni]] per una gamma di toni particolarmente ampia, che ne consente l'uso come strumento solista e melodico oltre che ritmico. Questa varietà tonale dipende dalla particolare forma a [[calice]], dal tipo di legni usati, dalle incisioni interne alla [[cassa armonica]], e dal tipo di pelle usata per la membrana.
Per riprodurre tutti i toni possibili occorre una certa pratica; sono rilevanti sia la posizione in cui si colpisce la membrana quanto il fatto che il colpo sia "concentrato" (come quello che si ottiene tenendo le dita unite e rigide) o "disperso" (come quello che si ottiene colpendo con la mano e le dita rilassate). Il passaggio dal colpo concentrato a quello disperso corrisponde a un passaggio da toni più bassi a toni più alti; una simile differenza vale fra un colpo dato al centro della membrana a uno dato in prossimità dei bordi. I suonatori principianti tendono a cambiare tono spostando le mani, mentre i professionisti privilegiano in genere le variazioni nel tocco.
==Storia dello strumento==
Le origini dello strumento sono certamente molto antiche; una delle ipotesi più diffuse è che lo strumento provenga dalla regione di [[Wosolo]] (oggi nel [[Mali]]), dove sarebbe stato inventato dall'etnia [[Bamana]] circa 3000 anni fa.<ref>[http://cdbaby.com/cd/abdouli]</ref>
Si ritiene che lo djembe si sia diffuso in Africa Occidentale intorno al primo millennio d.C., probabilmente a opere dei [[Numu]], una classe di fabbri delle [[etnia|etnie]] [[Mandinka]] e [[Susu]]. Nonostante la relazione dello strumento con una particolare classe, tuttavia, in Africa la pratica di suonare lo djembe non viene considerata un privilegio ereditario (come avviene per altri strumenti, per esempio quelli tipici dei [[griot]]).
Durante il [[storia del colonialismo in Africa|colonialismo]], i [[francia|francesi]] diedero un contributo fondamentale allo studio e alla diffusione dello djembe in [[Europa]] e nel mondo. La stessa scrittura ''djembe'', con il ''dj'' iniziale, è riflesso del retaggio francese; era infatti una traslitterazione in francese della "g" dolce ("giambé"). Nel periodo postcoloniale diverse autorità locali hanno proposto nuove traslitterazioni ufficiali basate su standard internazionali di trascrizione fonetica, ma la scrittura alla francese rimane tuttora predominante.<ref>[http://echarry.web.wesleyan.edu/jembe-spelling.html]</ref>
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The jembe first made an impact outside West Africa in [[Paris]] of the [[1940s]] and more widely in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] with the filming and world tours of ''Les Ballets Africains'' featuring a young [[Papa Ladji Camara]] and led by [[Fodeba Keita]] of [[Guinea]]. The "national ballet" movement, in which a number of drumming/dancing companies have adapted traditional African drumming/dancing events to the Western-style stage, has resulted in a surge of interest in African drumming, especially jembe drumming.
Beginning in the late 20th century, the jembe became very popular in [[drum circles]] all around the world. In proper form, however, it's played in ensemble with the "[[dunun]]" drum (dununba, sangban, kenkeni), bells, with individuals playing different parts that lace together intricately to weave a delicate rhythmic tapestry. Dancers are accompanied by jembe and dunun drummers, including a lead jembe player, or soloist, who will play rhythms which align with the dancer's movements as they make them, and whose playing will signal changes in the dance steps, as well as the beginning and end of a piece.
The jembe is known in its cultural context as a healing drum.
Traditionally crafted jembe drums are carved in one single piece from hollowed out hardwood trees. Specific types of wood depend upon the forests accessible to the drum makers. Some West African hardwoods used for musician quality instruments (carved in Guinea, Senegal, Mali, and Ivory Coast) include dimba (bush mango), lenge, bois rouge, acajou, iroko, hare or khadi, and dugura.
In the mid 1990's furniture makers in Ghana took note of the commercial success being experienced by traditional jembe drum carvers. The crafts people in Ghana, where the kpanlogo drums (barrel shaped, vs the goblet shape of a jembe) are the most well known traditional drums, began to carve and sell jembes from Tweneboa, a soft wood. Using soft wood required a much thicker shell, which fails to produce the resonant and explosive sound of a hardwood jembe. The commercial savvy of the furniture importers led to a very large number of these soft wood jembes coming into the United States. These "tourist quality" softwood drums appeared in discount department stores like Marshalls and Target, priced at $100 and less. Doing business in the vast U.S. market was also facilitated because the language of business & education in Ghana is English.
Jembe playing by non-African people has a much longer history in Europe than it does in the USA and other parts of the world, as the French speaking members of Les Ballets Africains first settled in France, Belgium, Germany, and other parts of Europe when they left the touring company to seek personal opportunities. Because of this history, and the education that Europeans received from traditional Manding teachers like Mamady Keita and Famoudou Konate, Europe has mostly avoided the large number of softwood jembes arriving in the American marketplace. While these drums may look nice, their sound leaves much to be desired for serious jembe players.
The djembe is said to contain three spirits: the spirit of the tree, the spirit of the animal of which the drum head is made, and the spirit of the instrument maker. The djembe is also known as the '''magical drum''', '''mushroom shaped drum''', and the '''Devil Drum'''. It is legend that the djimbe and/or the tree from which it is created was a gift from a [[Djinn]] or malevolent [[demigod]], male counterpart to the more familiar [[Genie]]. Properly crafted djembe drums are carved in one single piece from hollowed out trees called [[Dimba]], or Devil Wood. Drums made from slats or segments of wood glued together are considered by traditionalists to have no soul of the tree. Properly made drums are not smooth on the interior but have a series of teardrop shaped divots inside that enhances the tonal qualities. The drumheads are typically made from [[goat]]skin, but more rarely can be [[antelope]], [[zebra]], [[deer]] or [[calf]]. In all cases the female is preferred and adult [[cow]] is never used. In earlier times and still in some rural areas djembe were used to send messages over long distances.
Properly made drums are not smooth on the interior but have a spiral channel inside that enhances the tonal qualities. Splinters and rough carving inside is a sign of a hastily made drum. The drumheads are typically made from [[goat]]skin, and more rarely can be [[antelope]], [[zebra]], [[deer]] or [[calf]]. West African goat skins are known to jembe musicians as having a different sound than goats domesticated in the USA. Goats raised in West Africa experience a rougher existence, different climate feed, which apparently toughens and hardens the skins in a way that impacts their sound quality. Goat skins from animals bred and raised in the USA have been known to be softer, and tear more easily under the extreme tension required for a playable drum.
Jembe drums are tuned by evenly pulling the vertical ropes very tightly so that a system of metal rings brings the skin down over the drum shell. These verticals are tightened all the way around, perhaps taking multiple passes, and using a lever of some sort. The next step is to use more rope to put in horizontal "twists" of the vertical ropes. It passes under two verticals, back over one, under one (making a Z or S shape), then gets pulled hard and down. Nice even and parallel rows of twists, as low as possible, is the ideal.
When a new skin is being put on a drum, this whole pulling process is proceeded by soaking a skin in water until it is very pliable. That wet skin is placed on the drum with the ring system while the rope verticals gently pull the rings down a bit. Then it's left to dry completely before the virgorous pulling and twisting described above happens.
A masterful djembe player may be referred to as a "djembefola," -- "the one who makes the djembe speak."
==See also==
{{commonscat|Djembe}}
*[[Dunun]]
*[[Abdouli Diakite]]
*[[Mamady Keïta]]
*[[Famoudou Konaté]]
{{Portal|Music|note.jpg}}
==Further reading==
*Eric Charry, [http://echarry.web.wesleyan.edu/jembearticle/article.html "A Guide to the Jembe,"] originally published in "Percussive Notes" 34, no. 2 (April 1996).
*Blanc, Serge (1997) ''African Percussion: The Djembe''.
*''Mandiani Drum and Dance: Djembé Performance and Black Aesthetics from Africa to the New World'' by Mark Sunkett, White Cliffs Media 1995. ISBN 0-941677-76-1 CD/Tape/Video. An in depth treatment of The dance and music of Mandiani people who originated in the Northeastern region of Guinea in West Africa.
*Polak, Rainer (1998)[http://tcd.freehosting.net/djembemande/microtiming.html "Jenbe Music in Bamako: Microtiming as Formal Model and Performance Practice"].ISBN 3-89645-241-X, p.23-42.<!-- appears to be an article in a publish journal " Traditional mbira music of the Shona" -->
*Chevrier, Jeremy (2000 - ) [http://rootsyrecords.com/HtmlFiles/DjembeEssays.html "Personal Djembe Essays"].
* Reverend R Clark [http://home.acceleration.net/clark/PaperVu/ensomme.htm "Historical Perspective on African Drumming"]
*[http://www.afrodesign.com/djembe_guide.php "Djembe Buying Guide"]
*[http://www.wwdrums.com/djembe-drum-head-replacement-instructions-a-15.html "Djembe Repair Instructions"]
*[http://www.rootsyrecords.com/HtmlFiles/djembevideo.htm Djembe Drumming Videos from West Africa]
*[http://home.acceleration.net/clark/PaperVu/context.htm Cultural Context for Djembé Rhythms]
[[Category:Hand drums]]
[[Category:African drums]]
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