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#REDIRECT [[Reading#Learning to read]]
{{short description|Acquiring the skills to understand the meaning of written language}}
{{Reading}}
[[File:Az_girl_reading_a_book._e-citizen.jpg|thumb|A child at the "reading readiness" stage.]]
'''Learning to read''' is the acquisition and practice of the skills necessary to [[Reading|understand the meaning behind printed words]]. For a skilled reader, the act of reading feels simple, effortless, and automatic.<ref name="Rayner, 2001">{{cite journal|last=Rayner|first=Keith|year=2001|title=How psychological science informs the teaching of reading|url=http://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/pspi/pdf/pspi22.pdf|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|series=2|volume=2|issue=2|pages=31–74|doi=10.1111/1529-1006.00004|pmid=26151366|author2=Barbara Foorman|author3=Charles A. Perfetti|author4=David Pesetsky|author5=Mark S. Seidenberg|citeseerx=10.1.1.14.4083|s2cid=134422}}</ref> However, the process of learning to read is complex and builds on cognitive, linguistic, and social skills developed from a very early age.<ref name="Rayner, 2001"/> As one of the four core language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cgcc.edu/literacy/resources/four-basic-language-skills|title=Four basic language skills, cgcc.edu, USA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/skills|title=Learn English, British Council.org, UK}}</ref> reading is vital to gaining a command of the written language.
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In the United States and elsewhere, it is widely believed that students who lack proficiency in reading by the end of grade three may face obstacles for the rest of their academic career.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsba.org/-/media/NSBA/File/cpe-learning-to-read-reading-to-learn-white-paper-2015.pdf?la=en&hash=8E0E470C3E263C66E4491EC035224DC9018C6D5F|title=Center for public education, March 2015, NSBA.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/PRFbooklet.pdf|title=Put Reading First, The National Institute for Literacy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/PracticeGuide/wwc_found_reading_summary_051517.pdf|title=Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Understanding in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade, The Institute of Education Sciences}}</ref> For example, it is estimated that they would not be able to read half of the material they will encounter in grade four.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ccf.ny.gov/files/9013/8262/2751/AECFReporReadingGrade3.pdf|title=Why Reading by the End of Third Grade Matters, page 9, the Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2010}}</ref> In 2019, with respect to the reading skills of grade-four US public school students, 44% of white students and 18% of black students performed at or above the ''proficient level'' of the [[#Reading achievement: national and international reports|Nations Report Card]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/highlights/reading/2019/|title=Nations report card}}</ref>
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As a result, many governments put practices in place to ensure that students are reading at grade level by the end of grade three. An example of this is the ''Third Grade Reading Guarantee'' created by the State of [[Ohio]] in 2017. This is a program to identify students from kindergarten through grade three that are behind in reading, and provide support to make sure they are on track for reading success by the end of grade three. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://education.ohio.gov/Topics/Learning-in-Ohio/Literacy/Third-Grade-Reading-Guarantee|title=Third Grade Reading Guarantee, OHIO, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Learning-in-Ohio/English-Language-Art/English-Language-Arts-Standards/ELA-Learning-Standards-2017.pdf.aspx?lang=en-US|title=Reading Standards for Foundational Skills K–12, OHIO Department of Education, 2017}}</ref> This is also known as [[remedial education]]. Another example is the policy in England whereby any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must "urgently" receive help through a "rigorous and systematic phonics programme".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-primary-curriculum|title=National curriculum in England primary}}</ref>
In 2016, internationally, out of 50 countries the United States achieved the 15th highest score in grade-four reading ability.<ref> {{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pirls/pirls2016/tables/pirls2016_table01.asp|title =PIRLS reading results by country, NCES, 2016}}</ref> The ten countries with the highest overall reading average are the Russian Federation, Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Ireland, Finland, Poland, Northern Ireland, Norway, Chinese Taipei and England (UK). Some others are: Australia 21st, Canada 23rd, New Zealand 33rd, France 34th, Saudi Arabia 44th, and South Africa 50th.
==Writing systems==
{{Main|Writing system}}
In order to understand a text, it is usually necessary to understand the spoken language associated with that text. In this way, writing systems are distinguished from many other symbolic communication systems.<ref name="Daniels">{{cite book|title=The World's Writing Systems |year=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19-507993-7|editor=Daniels, Peter T. |editor2=William Bright|title-link=The World's Writing Systems}}</ref> Once established, writing systems on the whole change more slowly than their spoken counterparts, and often preserve features and expressions which are no longer current in the spoken language. The great benefit of writing systems is their ability to maintain a persistent record of information expressed in a language, which can be retrieved independently of the initial act of formulation.<ref name="Daniels"/>
==History==
{{Main|Reading}}
The history of reading dates back to the [[History of writing|invention of writing]] during the 4th millennium BC.
With respect to the English language in the United States, the [[phonics]] principle of teaching reading was first presented by [[John Hart (spelling reformer)|John Hart]] in 1570, who suggested the teaching of reading should focus on the relationship between what is now referred to as [[grapheme]]s (letters) and [[phoneme]]s (sounds). <ref> {{Cite journal|last=Hart|first=John|date=1570|title=A method or comfortable beginning for all unlearned, whereby they may be taught to read English in a very short time, with pleasure: so profitable as strange, put in light, by I.H. Chester Heralt|url=https://lib.ugent.be/en/catalog/rug01:001517217}}</ref>
In the colonial times of the USA, reading material was not written specifically for children, so instruction material consisted primarily of the Bible and some patriotic essays. The most influential early textbook was [[The New England Primer]], published in 1687. There was little consideration given to the best ways to teach reading or assess reading comprehension.<ref name="Adams, 1990">{{cite book |author=Adams, Marilyn Jager |title=Beginning to read: thinking and learning about print |publisher=MIT Press |___location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=1990 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/beginningtoreadt00adam/page/21 21–25] |isbn=0-262-01112-3 |oclc=256731826 |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningtoreadt00adam/page/21 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.k12academics.com/reading-education-united-states/history-reading-education-us|title=History of Reading Education in the U.S. {{!}} K12 Academics|last=Glavin|first=Chris|date=2014-02-06|website=www.k12academics.com|language=en|access-date=2018-06-15}}</ref>
Phonics was a popular way to learn reading in the 1800s. [[William Holmes McGuffey]] (1800-1873), an American educator, author, and Presbyterian minister who had a lifelong interest in teaching children, compiled the first four of the [[McGuffey Readers]] in 1836. Lesson one of ''McGuffey's Eclectic Primer'' <ref>{{Cite book|title=McGuffey's Eclectic Primer|author=William McGuffey|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|date=1999-05-04|isbn=0471294284}}</ref> has instructions on the short vowel "a" (/æ/) including "A cat and a rat".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.apmreports.org/episode/2019/08/22/whats-wrong-how-schools-teach-reading|title=At a Loss for Words, APM Reports|author=Emily Hanford|date=2019-08-22}}</ref> McGuffey's books are still published today.
The whole-word method was invented by [[Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet]], the director of the American Asylum at [[Hartford]]. It was designed to educate deaf people by placing a word alongside a picture.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/topics/reverend-thomas-hopkins-gallaudet.htm|title=Reverend Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet|last=Vicars|first=William|website=www.lifeprint.com|access-date=2018-06-15}}</ref> In 1830, Gallaudet described his method of teaching children to recognize a total of 50 sight words written on cards.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sightwords.com/sight-words/lessons/|title=Sight Words Teaching Strategy {{!}} Sight Words: Teach Your Child to Read|website=www.sightwords.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-06-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/gallaudet-thomas-hopkins3.htm|title=Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet American Sign Language (ASL)|website=www.lifeprint.com|access-date=2018-06-15}}</ref> [[Horace Mann]], the Secretary of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, USA, favored the method for everyone, and by 1837 the method was adopted by the [[Boston]] Primary School Committee.<ref name="pbs.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/onlyateacher/horace.html|title=PBS Online: Only A Teacher: Schoolhouse Pioneers|website=www.pbs.org|access-date=2018-06-15}}</ref>
By 1844 the defects of the whole-word method became so apparent to Boston schoolmasters that they urged the Board to return to phonics.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.helpingeverychildtoread.com/index.php/causes-of-difficulty/reading-theories/whole-word-method|title=Whole Word Method|website=www.helpingeverychildtoread.com|language=en-gb|access-date=2018-06-15}}</ref> In 1929, Dr. [[Samuel Orton]], a [[Neuropathology|neuropathologist]] in [[Iowa]], concluded that the cause of children's reading problems was the new sight method of reading. His findings were published in the February 1929 issue of the [[Journal of Educational Psychology]] in the article ''"The Sight Reading Method of Teaching Reading as a Source of Reading Disability''."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Glavin|first=Chris|date=2014-02-06|title=Instructional Methods {{!}} K12 Academics|url=https://www.k12academics.com/reading-education-united-states/instructional-methods|access-date=2020-06-12|website=www.k12academics.com|language=en}}</ref>
The meaning-based curriculum came to dominate reading instruction by the second quarter of the 20th century. In the 1930s and 1940s, reading programs became very focused on comprehension and taught children to read whole words by sight. Phonics was taught as a last resort.<ref name="Adams, 1990"/>
[[Dolch word list|Dr. Edward William Dolch]] developed his list of [[sight words]] in 1936 by studying the most frequently occurring words in children's books of that era. Children are encouraged to memorize the words with the idea that it will help them read more fluently. Many teachers continue to use this list, although some researchers consider the theory of sight word reading to be a "myth". Researchers and literacy organizations suggest it would be more effective if students learned the words using a phonics approach.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stanislas Dehaene|title=Reading in the brain|pages=222–228|publisher=Penquin Books|date=2010-10-26|isbn=9780143118053}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.understood.org/en/school-learning/for-educators/teaching-strategies/how-to-teach-sight-words|title=Sight Words: An Evidence-Based Literacy Strategy, Understood.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/article/new-model-teaching-high-frequency-words|title=A New Model for Teaching High-Frequency Words, reading rockets.org}}</ref>
In 1955, [[Rudolf Flesch]] published a book entitled ''Why Johnny Can't Read'', a passionate argument in favor of teaching children to read using phonics, adding to the reading debate among educators, researchers, and parents.<ref name="Flesch, R">{{cite book |author=Flesch, Rudolf Franz |title=[[Why Johnny Can't Read|Why Johnny can't read: and what you can do about it]] |publisher=Harper & Row |___location=San Francisco |year=1986 |isbn=0-06-091340-1 |oclc=12837722 }}</ref>
Government-funded research on reading instruction in the United States and elsewhere began in the 1960s. In the 1970s and 1980s, researchers began publishing studies with evidence on the effectiveness of different instructional approaches. During this time, researchers at the [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) conducted studies that showed early reading acquisition depends on the understanding of the connection between sounds and letters (i.e. phonics). However, this appears to have had little effect on educational practices in public schools.<ref>{{cite book |author=Adams, Marilyn Jager |title=Beginning to read: thinking and learning about print |publisher=MIT Press |___location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=1994 |isbn=0-262-51076-6 |oclc=256731826 |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningtoread00mari }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/jameskim/publications/research-and-reading-wars-0|title=Research and the reading wars, James S. Kim, The Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 89, No. 5 (Jan., 2008), pp. 372-375|access-date=2018-06-15|language=en}}</ref>
In the 1970s, the [[whole language]] method was introduced. This method de-emphasizes the teaching of phonics out of context (e.g. reading books), and is intended to help readers "guess" the right word.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=A psycholinguistic guessing game|journal=Journal of the Reading Specialist|volume=6|issue=4|pages=126–135|doi=10.1080/19388076709556976|year = 1967|last1 = Goodman|first1 = Kenneth S.}}</ref> It teaches that guessing individual words should involve three systems (letter clues, meaning clues from context, and the syntactical structure of the sentence). It became the primary method of reading instruction in the 1980s and 1990s. However, it is falling out of favor. The neuroscientist [[Mark Seidenberg]] refers to it as a "theoretical zombie" because it persists in spite of a lack of supporting evidence.<ref> {{cite book |title ="The persistence of the [whole language] ideas despite the mass of evidence against them is most striking at this point. In normal science, a theory whose assumptions and predictions have been repeatedly contradicted by data will be discarded. That is what happened to the Smith and Goodman theories within reading science, but in education they are theoretical zombies that cannot be stopped by conventional weapons such as empirical disconfirmation, leaving them free to roam the educational landscape." Language at the speed of light, 2017, page 271, Mark Seidenberg}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/RF/introduction/|title=Reading foundational skills, Common Core States Standards Initiative, USA}}</ref> It is still widely practiced in related methods such as [[Sight word|sight words]], the 3-cueing system and [[balanced literacy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.apmreports.org/story/2018/09/10/hard-words-why-american-kids-arent-being-taught-to-read |title=Hard Words: Why American kids aren't being taught to read, ARM Reports 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Adams, Marilyn Jager |title=Beginning to read: thinking and learning about print |publisher=MIT Press |___location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=1994 |isbn=0-262-51076-6 |oclc=256731826 |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningtoread00mari }}</ref><ref name="LDOnline">{{cite web |last1=Moats |first1=Louisa |title=Whole Language Lives On: The Illusion of Balanced Reading Instruction |url=http://www.ldonline.org/article/6394/ |website=LD Online |publisher=WETA Public Television |access-date=29 January 2019}}</ref>
In the 1980s the [[#three-cueing system|three-cueing system]] (the searchlights model in England) emerged. According to a 2010 survey 75% of teachers in the USA teach the three-cueing system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.edweek.org/media/ed%20week%20reading%20instruction%20survey%20report-final%201.24.20.pdf|title=Early reading instruction survey, EdWeek Research Center, USA|date=2010}}</ref> It teaches children to guess a word by using "meaning cues" (semantic, syntactic and graphophonic). While the system does help students to "make better guesses", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. Consequently, present-day researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists [[Mark Seidenberg]] and professor [[Timothy Shanahan (educator)|Timothy Shanahan]] do not support the theory.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/blogs/shanahan-literacy/it-good-idea-teach-three-cueing-systems-reading|title=Is It a Good Idea to Teach the Three Cueing Systems in Reading|date=2019-04-01|author=Timothy Shanahan, Reading Rockets}}</ref><ref> {{cite book |title=Language at the speed of light|date=2017|pages=300–304|author=Mark Seidenberg|isbn=9780465080656}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nifdi.org/resources/hempenstall-blog/402-the-three-cueing-system-in-reading-will-it-ever-go-away|title=The three-cueing system in reading: Will it ever go away|author=Dr Kerry Hempenstall, Senior Industry Fellow, School of Education, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia|date=2017-10-29}}</ref> In England, [[synthetic phonics]] is intended to replace "the searchlights multi-cueing model".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/pdfs/2006-primary-national-strategy.pdf|page=18|title=Primary Framework for literacy and mathematics, Department for education and skills, England|year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100512233640/http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-05-12|title=Independent review of the teaching of early reading, 2006|access-date=2020-05-22}}</ref>
In the 1990s [[Balanced literacy]] arose. It is a theory of teaching reading and writing that is not clearly defined. It may include elements such as word study and phonics mini-lessons, differentiated learning, cueing, leveled reading, shared reading, guided reading, independent reading and sight words.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/reading-is-more-than-sounding-out-words-and-decoding-thats-why-we-use-the-whole-language-approach-to-teaching-it-126606|title=Reading is more than sounding out words and decoding, The conversation.com, 2019-11-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://districtadministration.com/teaching-phonics-builds-balanced-literacy|title=Teaching phonics builds balanced literacy, District administration, FL}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.edutopia.org/article/3-ways-make-better-use-reading-science|title=3 Ways to Make Better Use of Reading Science, Edutopia.org, 2020-02-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/inspired-ideas-prek-12/4-reasons-to-use-the-balanced-literacy-approach-4e6556ccb19a|title=4 reasons to use balanced literacy}}</ref> For some, balanced literacy strikes a balance between [[whole language]] and [[phonics]]. Others say balanced literacy in practice usually means the ''whole language'' approach to reading.<ref>Reading at the Speed of Light: How we Read, why so many can't, and what can be done about it, 2017, pages 248, Mark Seidenberg {{ISBN|978-1-5416-1715-5}}</ref> According to a survey in 2019, 68% of K-2 teachers in the USA practice balanced literacy. Furthermore, only 52% of teachers included ''phonics'' in their definition of ''balanced literacy''.
In 1996 the [[California]] Department of Education took an increased interest in using phonics in schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/05/22/us/california-leads-revival-of-teaching-by-phonics.html|title= NY Times 1996, California Leads Revival Of Teaching by Phonics}}</ref> And in 1997 the department called for grade one teaching in concepts about print, phonemic awareness, decoding and word recognition, and vocabulary and concept development.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/documents/elacontentstnds.pdf|title= English–Language Arts Content Standards for California Public Schools}}</ref>
By 1998 in the U.K. whole language instruction and the searchlights-model were still the norm, however there was some attention to teaching phonics in the early grades, as seen in the National Literacy Strategies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rrf.org.uk/2018/07/30/phonics-developments-in-england-from-1998-to-2018-by-jenny-chew/|title=Phonics Developments in England from 1998 to 2018 by Jenny Chew, Reading reform foundation UK|year=2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/175408/DFE-00032-2011.pdf|title=The National Strategies 1997–2011, Department for Education, England|year=2011}}</ref>
===21st century===
Following that, several reading research reports where published, for example:
* 2000 - The [[National Reading Panel]] (U.S.A.) that identified five ingredients of effective reading instruction: ''phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=National reading panel, nichd.nih.gov}}</ref>
* 2005 - The [[Australia|Australian]] report on ''Teaching reading'' that supports the use of [[Systematic Phonics|systematic phonics]]. <ref name="Teaching Reading">{{cite web |url=http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=2&article=1004&context=tll_misc&type=additional |title=Teaching Reading |format=PDF |work= Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training. }}</ref>
* 2006 - The [[United Kingdom]] [[Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006)]] that supports [[Phonics#Synthetic phonics|systematic synthetic phonics]].<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf | title = Independent review of the teaching of early reading | access-date = 2011-08-24 | last = Rose | first = Jim | year = 2006 | work = Department for Education and Skills}}</ref>
In [[Australia]] the 2005 report, ''Teaching Reading'', recommends teaching reading based on evidence and teaching systematic, explicit phonics within an integrated approach.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233365611|title=Learning to read in Australia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://research.acer.edu.au/tll_misc/5/|title=Rowe, K., & National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy (Australia). (2005)}}</ref> The executive summary says "[[phonics#Systematic phonics|systematic phonics]] instruction is critical if children are to be taught to read well, whether or not they experience reading difficulties."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dest.gov.au/nitl/documents/executive_summary.pdf |title=Executive Summary |work=Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422080804/http://www.dest.gov.au/nitl/documents/executive_summary.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-22 }}</ref> As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including effective reading instruction, phonics, and sample phonics lessons.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/readingviewing/Pages/litfocusphonics.aspx#link15|title=Foundation phonics scope, Victoria, AU}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/readingviewing/Pages/phonicslessons.aspx|title=Sample phonics lessons, The State Government of Victoria}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/readingviewing/Pages/litfocusphonics.aspx#link15|title=Foundation skills, The State Government of Victoria, AU}}</ref>
In [[Scotland]] a seven-year study (the Clackmannanshire Report) was published in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pearson.com/uk/educators/schools/making-an-impact/research-summaries/clackmannanshire-report.html|title=Clackmannanshire Report: The effects of synthetic phonics teaching on reading and spelling attainment, 2005}}</ref> It compared analytic phonics with synthetic phonics and advantaged students with disadvantaged students. The report found that, using [[phonics#Synthetic phonics|synthetic phonics]] children from lower socio-economic backgrounds performed at the same level as children from advantaged backgrounds in primary school (whereas with analytic phonics teaching, they did significantly less well.); and boys performed better than or as well as girls.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.webarchive.org.uk/wayback/archive/20170701074158/http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2005/02/20682/52383|title=Clackmannanshire Report, a seven-year study that was published in 2005, webarchive.org.uk }}</ref> A five-year follow-up of the study concluded that the beneficial effects were long-lasting, in fact the reading gains increased.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/4938/1/nls_phonics0303rjohnston.pdf|title=Accelerating Reading and Spelling with Synthetic Phonics: A Five Year Follow Up, Johnston & Watson}}</ref> Subsequently, [[Education Scotland]] concluded that explicit, systematic phonics programs, usually embedded in a rich literacy environment, give an additional four months progress over other programs such as whole language, and are particularly beneficial for young learners (aged 4–7). There is evidence, though less secure, that synthetic phonics programs may be more beneficial than [[analytic phonics]] programs; however it is most important to teach [[phonics#Systematic phonics|systematically]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://education.gov.scot/improvement/pages/EEF-Toolkit-Results.aspx?911459f09ef0012d8e7c32f03e32d003d881d45febd1eba332753219e922d8f5|title=National Improvement Hub:Phonics}}</ref>
Until 2006, the English language syllabus of [[Singapore]] advocated "a balance between decoding and meaning-based instruction … phonics and whole language". However, a review in 2006 advocated for a "systematic" approach. Subsequently, the syllabus in 2010 had no mention of whole language and advocated for a balance between "systematic and explicit instruction" and "a rich language environment". It called for increased instruction in oral language skills together with phonemic awareness and the key decoding elements of synthetic phonics, analytic phonics and analogy phonics.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.moe.gov.sg/docs/default-source/document/education/syllabuses/english-language-and-literature/files/english-primary-secondary-express-normal-academic.pdf|title=2010 English language syllabus, Minister of Education, Singapore}}</ref>
In 2007 the Department of Education (DE) in [[Northern Ireland]] was required by law to teach children foundational skills in [[phonological awareness]] and the understanding that "words are made up of sounds and syllables and that sounds are represented by letters (phoneme/grapheme awareness)”.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisr/2007/46/pdfs/nisr_20070046_en.pdf|title=Statute2007 No. 46, Northern Ireland, pgs. 4–6}}</ref> In 2010 the DE required that teachers receive support in using [[evidence-based practices]] to teach literacy and numeracy, including: a “systematic programme of high-quality phonics” that is explicit, structured, well-paced, interactive, engaging, and applied in a meaningful context.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.education-ni.gov.uk/sites/default/files/publications/de/count-read-succeed-a-strategy-to-improve-outcomes-in-literacy-and-numeracy.pdf|title=Count Read: Succeed, pg 25, N. Ireland, 2010}}</ref>
In 2010 the [[Common Core State Standards Initiative]] was introduced in the USA. The ''English Language Arts Standards for Reading: Foundational Skills in Grades 1-5'' include recommendations to teach print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics and word recognition, and fluency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/RF/1/|title=USA Common Core State Standards Initiative, grade 1}}</ref>
In the [[United Kingdom]] a 2010 government white paper contained plans to train all primary school teachers in phonics.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/8147987/Education-White-Paper-key-points-explained.html|title=Education White Paper key points explained|publisher=The Daily Telegraph [Telegraph.co.uk]|access-date=20 November 2010|___location=London|first=Nick|last=Collins|date=20 November 2010}}</ref> The 2013 curriculum<ref>{{cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/425601/PRIMARY_national_curriculum.pdf|title=UK Primary National Curriculum, 2013}}</ref> has "statutory requirements" that, amongst other things, students in years one and two be capable in using [[phonics#systematic synthetic phonics|systematic synthetic phonics]] in regards to word reading, reading comprehension, fluency, and writing. This includes having skills in "sound to graphemes", "decoding", and "blending".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/379489/Getting_20them_20reading_20early.doc|title=Getting them Reading Early, OFSTED, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5wGfNiweEkI|title=Synthetic Phonics, Mr. T's phonics, 2010}}</ref>
In 2013, the National Commission for [[UNESCO]] launched the ''Leading for Literacy'' project to develop the literacy skills of grades 1 and 2 students. The project facilitates the training of primary school teachers in the use of a synthetic phonics program. From 2013 to 2015, the [[Trinidad & Tobago]] Ministry of Education appointed seven reading specialist to help primary and secondary school teachers improve their literacy instruction. From February 2014 to January 2016, literacy coaches were hired in selected primary schools to assist teachers of kindergarten, grades 1 and 2 with pedagogy and content of early literacy instruction. Primary schools have been provided with literacy resources for instruction, including phonemic awareness, word recognition, vocabulary manipulatives, phonics and comprehension.
In 2013 the [[State of Mississippi]] passed the Literacy-Based Promotion Act.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://legiscan.com/MS/text/SB2157/id/1390375|title=Literacy-Based Promotion Act, Mississippi Senate Bill 2157,2016-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bdtonline.com/opinion/from-the-opinion-page-literacy-and-phonics-are-and-should-be-among-america-s-top/article_79a291d2-9e22-11ea-809a-c3bf323a44a1.html|title=OPINION PAGE: Literacy and phonics are, and should be, among America's top issues}}</ref> The [[Mississippi Department of Education]] provided resources for teachers in the areas of phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension and reading strategies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mdek12.org/ESE/literacy/professional-development-and-resources-for-teachers|title=Professional Development and Resources for Teachers, Mississippi}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/highlights/reading/2019/|title=Nations report card}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/05/opinion/mississippi-schools-naep.html|title=Opinion, Mississippi schools, NT Times, 2019-12-05}}</ref>
The school curriculum in [[Ireland]] focuses on ensuring children are literate in both the [[English language]] and the [[Irish language]]. The 2014 teachers’ Professional Development guide<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.pdst.ie/sites/default/files/15.%20The%20Reading%20Process%20(1).pdf |title=PDST, The Reading Process, A Guide to the Teaching and Learning of Reading, Dublin, 2014}}</ref> covers the seven areas of attitude and motivation, fluency, comprehension, word identification, vocabulary, phonological awareness, phonics, and assessment. It recommends that phonics be taught in a systematic and structured way and is preceded by training in phonological awareness.
In 2014 the [[California]] Department of Education said children should know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade, and be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/rl/cf/documents/elaeldfwchapter3.pdf|title= English–Language Arts, Transitional Kindergarten to Grade 1, California Public Schools}}</ref> In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/rl/cf/documents/elaeldfwchapter4.pdf|title= English–Language Arts, Pedagogy Grades Two and Three, California Public Schools}}</ref>
In 2015 the [[New York State]] Public School system revised its English Language Arts learning standards, calling for teaching involving "reading or literacy experiences" as well as [[phonemic awareness]] from prekindergarten to grade 1 and phonics and word recognition for grades 1-4.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.engageny.org/resource/new-york-state-next-generation-english-language-arts-learning-standards|title=2015 New York State Next Generation English Language Arts Learning Standards}}</ref> That same year, the [[Ohio]] Legislature set minimum standards requiring the use of phonics including guidelines for teaching phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://education.ohio.gov/Topics/Operating-Standards/Table-of-Contents/Instruction/Phonics|title=Rules for Phonics, Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Early-Learning/Third-Grade-Reading-Guarantee/Third-Grade-Reading-Guarantee-District-Resources/Approved-List-of-Research-Based-Reading-Instructio/Reading_Competencies.pdf.aspx|title=Reading Competencies, Ohio}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://education.ohio.gov/Topics/Learning-in-Ohio/Literacy/Third-Grade-Reading-Guarantee/Third-Grade-Reading-Guarantee-Teacher-Resources|title=Third grade reading guarantee, Ohio }}</ref>
In 2016 the What Works Clearinghouse<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/|title=What Works Clearinghouse}}</ref> and the [[Institute of Education Sciences]] published an Educator's Practice Guide on Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Understanding in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/PracticeGuide/wwc_foundationalreading_070516.pdf|title=What works clearinghouse: Educator's Practice Guide on Foundational Skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd Grade, 2016, Institute of Education Sciences}}</ref> It contains four recommendations to support reading: 1) teach students academic language skills, including the use of inferential and narrative language, and vocabulary knowledge, 2) develop awareness of the segments of sounds in speech and how they link to letters (phonemic awareness and phonics), 3) teach students to decode words, analyze word parts, and write and recognize words (phonics and synthetic phonics), and 4) ensure that each student reads connected text every day to support reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xdGMRJSEjzU|title=Youtube, Overview of the Foundational Reading Skills Practice Guide and PLC Webinar, Florida State University, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://place.fi.ncsu.edu/local/catalog/course.php?id=15&ref=1|title=Teaching Foundational Reading Skills MOOC-Ed, NC STATE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION}}</ref>
In 2016 the [[Colorado Department of Education]] updated their ''Elementary Teacher Literacy Standards'' with standards for development in the areas of phonology, phonics and word recognition, fluent automatic reading, vocabulary, text comprehension, handwriting, spelling, and written expression.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cde.state.co.us/coloradoliteracy/elementaryteacher-literacystandards|title=Elementary Teacher Literacy Standards, COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, 2016}}</ref>
The ''European Literacy Policy Network'' (ELINET) 2016<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eli-net.eu|title=European literacy policy network (ELINET)}}</ref> reports that [[Hungary|Hungarian]] children in grades one and two receive explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics "as the route to decode words". In grades three and four they continue to apply their knowledge of phonics, however the emphasis shifts to the more meaning-focused technical aspects of reading and writing (i.e., vocabulary, types of texts, reading strategies, spelling, punctuation and grammar).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eli-net.eu/fileadmin/ELINET/Redaktion/user_upload/Hungary_Long_Report.pdf|title=Literacy in Hungary, European literacy policy network 2016}}</ref>
In 2017 the [[Ohio]] Department of Education adopted ''Reading Standards for Foundational Skills K–12'' laying out a systematic approach to teaching ''phonological awareness'' in kindergarten and grade one, and ''grade-level phonics and word analysis skills in decoding words'' (including fluency and comprehension) in grades 1-5.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Learning-in-Ohio/English-Language-Art/English-Language-Arts-Standards/ELA-Learning-Standards-2017.pdf.aspx?lang=en-US|title=Reading Standards for Foundational Skills K–12, OHIO Department of Education, 2017}}</ref>
In 2018 the [[Arkansas Department of Education]] published a report about their new initiative known as R.I.S.E., Reading Initiative for Student Excellence, that was the result of The Right to Read Act, passed in 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arkansased.gov/public/userfiles/Learning_Services/RISE/RISE_Arkansas/RISE_Arkansas_2018_Report_REV2.pdf|title=A New Chapter for Arkansas Students, 2018 Report}}</ref> The first goal of this initiative is to provide educators with the in-depth knowledge and skills of "the science of reading" and evidence-based instructional strategies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dese.ade.arkansas.gov/public/userfiles/Learning_Services/RISE/SCIENCE_OF_READING.pdf|title=The Science of Reading, RISE, Arkansas}}</ref> This included a focus on research-based instruction on phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension; specifically systematic and explicit instruction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arkansased.gov/divisions/learning-services/r.i.s.e.-arkansas/its-all-about-meaning|title=It's all About Meaning, arkansased.gov/divisions/learning-services, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.arkansased.gov/public/userfiles/Learning_Services/RISE/It_s_All_About_Meaning/Book_Study_Facilitator_Guide.pdf|title= Essentials of Assessing, Preventing and Overcoming Reading Difficulties, David Kilpatrick, cortland.edu, arkansased.gov/public/userfiles}}</ref>
As of 2018, the Ministry of Education in [[New Zealand]] has online information to help teachers to support their students in years 1–3 in relation to sounds, letters, and words. It states that phonics instruction "is not an end in itself" and it is ''not'' necessary to teach students "every combination of letters and sounds".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://literacyonline.tki.org.nz/content/download/40858/455998/file/Sound+Sense+–+Supporting+reading+and+writing+in+years+1–3.pdf|title=Sound Sense, Ministry of Education, New Zealand, 2018}}</ref>
There has been a strong debate in [[France]] on the teaching of phonics ("méthode syllabique") versus whole language ("méthode globale"). After the 1990s, supporters of the later started defending a so-called "mixed method" (also known as [[Balanced literacy]]) in which approaches from both methods are used. Influential researchers in psycho-pedagogy, cognitive sciences and neurosciences, such as [[Stanislas Dehaene]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=25GI3-kiLdo&feature=youtu.be|title=Youtube, How the Brain Learns to Read – Prof. Stanislas Dehaene, October 25, 2013}}</ref> and [[:fr:Michel Fayol|Michel Fayol]] have put their heavy scientific weight on the side of phonics. In 2018 the ministry created a science educational council that openly supported phonics.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2018-03-24|title=Conseil scientifique de l'Éducation nationale|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conseil_scientifique_de_l%27%C3%89ducation_nationale&oldid=146747364|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}}</ref> In April 2018, the minister issued a set of four guiding documents<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.education.gouv.fr/cid129644/4-priorites-pour-renforcer-la-maitrise-des-fondamentaux.html|title=4 priorités pour renforcer la maîtrise des fondamentaux|last=nationale|first=Ministère de l'Éducation|work=Ministère de l'Éducation nationale|access-date=2018-05-06|language=fr-FR}}</ref> for early teaching of reading and mathematics and a booklet<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.education.gouv.fr/cid129644/4-priorites-pour-renforcer-la-maitrise-des-fondamentaux.html#Pour_enseigner_la_lecture_et_l_ecriture_au_CP_telechargez_le_guide|title=4 priorités pour renforcer la maîtrise des fondamentaux|last=nationale|first=Ministère de l'Éducation|work=Ministère de l'Éducation nationale|access-date=2018-05-06|language=fr-FR}}</ref> detailing phonics recommendations. Some have described his stance as "traditionalist",<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2013/12/31/apprentissage-de-la-lecture-depassons-l-opposition-archaique-entre-methode-syllabique-et-methode-globale_4341366_3232.html|title=Apprentissage de la lecture : opposer méthode syllabique et méthode globale est archaïque|website=Le Monde.fr|language=fr|access-date=2018-05-06}}</ref> but he openly declared that the so-called mixed approach is no serious choice.<ref>[http://www.lemonde.fr/education/article/2018/04/26/l-education-nationale-publie-quatre-circulaires-de-recommandations-pour-les-enseignants_5290908_1473685.html#bpvwbEylxc6AB5e7.99 « Entre quelque chose qui ne marche pas – la méthode globale – et quelque chose qui fonctionne – la syllabique – il ne peut y avoir de “compromis” mixte. Ce sujet ne relève pas de l’opinion, mais de faits démontrés par la recherche. C’est très clair. »]</ref>
In 2019 the [[Minnesota Department of Education]] introduced standards requiring school districts to "develop a local literacy plan to ensure that all students have achieved early reading proficiency by no later than the end of third grade" in accordance with a Statute of the [[Minnesota Legislature]] requiring elementary teachers to be able to implement comprehensive, [[Evidence-based education|scientifically based reading]] and oral language instruction in the five reading areas of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/cite/120B.12 |title=MN Statute 120B.12, 2019, READING PROFICIENTLY NO LATER THAN THE END OF GRADE 3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://education.mn.gov/MDE/dse/stds/|title= MN Department of Education Academic Standards (K-12), 2019}}</ref>
Also in 2019, 26% of grade 4 students in [[Louisiana]] were reading at the ''proficiency level'' according to the [[National Assessment of Educational Progress|Nation's Report Card]], as compared to the National Average of 34%.<Ref> {{cite web|url=https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/profiles/stateprofile?chort=1&sub=RED&sj=AL&sfj=NP&st=MN&year=2019R3|title=GRADE 4 READING 2019, Nation's Report Card}}</ref> In March 2019 the [[Louisiana Department of Education]] revised their curriculum for K-12 English Language Arts including requirements for instruction in the alphabetic principle, phonological awareness, phonics and word recognition, fluency and comprehension.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.louisianabelieves.com/docs/default-source/teacher-toolbox-resources/k-12-ela-standards.pdf|title=K-12 Student Standards for English Language Arts, Louisiana, 2019-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.louisianabelieves.com/docs/default-source/early-childhood/louisiana-s-early-literacy-commission-legislative-report.pdf?sfvrsn=984b9a1f_4|title=Louisiana's Early Literacy Commission, 2020}}</ref>
And again in 2019, 30% of grade 4 students in [[Texas]] were reading at the ''proficiency level'' according to the [[National Assessment of Educational Progress|Nation's Report Card]].<ref> {{cite web|url=https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/profiles/stateprofile?chort=1&sub=RED&sj=AL&sfj=NP&st=MN&year=2019R3|title=Grade 4 Reading, The Nation's Report Card (NAEP, 2019)}}</ref><ref> {{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d19/tables/dt19_221.40.asp|title= NAEP reading scale score of 4th-grade public school students, by state, 1992 through 2019}}</ref><ref> {{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=147|title=Fast facts, NCES}}</ref> In June of that year the Texas Legislature passed a Bill requiring all kindergarten through grade-three teachers and principals to "''begin'' a teacher literacy achievement academy before the 2022-2023 school year".<ref> {{cite web|url=https://tcta.org/node/15296-tea_releases_new_details_on_literacy_achievement_academies|title=Literacy Achievement Academies, Texas Classroom Teachers Association, 2019-12-03}}</ref> The required content of the academies' training includes the areas of ''The Science of Teaching Reading, Oral Language, Phonological Awareness, Decoding (i.e. Phonics), Fluency and Comprehension.'' The goal is to "increase teacher knowledge and implementation of [[Evidence-based education|evidence-based practices]] to positively impact student literacy achievement".<ref> {{cite web|url=https://tea.texas.gov/sites/default/files/tra_overviewparticipantdetails_final_1_2020.pdf|title=HB 3 Reading Academies, Texas Education Agency}}</ref>
For more information on reading educational developments, see [[Phonics#Practices by country or region|Practices by country or region]].
==Acquiring reading==
===Spoken language is the foundation===
Spoken language is the foundation of learning to read (long before children see any letters) and is a strong predictor of children's later reading ability. Spoken language is dominant for most of childhood, however, reading ultimately catches up and surpasses speech.<ref> {{cite book |title=Language at the speed of light|date=2017|pages=101–121|author=Mark Seidenberg|isbn=9780465080656}}</ref>
By their first birthday most children have learned all the sounds in their spoken language. However, it takes longer for them to learn the phonological form of words and to begin developing a spoken vocabulary.
Children acquire a spoken language in a few years. Five-to-six-year-old English learners have vocabularies of 2,500 to 5,000 words, and add 5,000 words per year for the first several years of schooling. This exponential learning rate cannot be accounted for by the instruction they receive. Instead, children learn that the meaning of a new word can be inferred because it occurs in the same context as familiar words (e.g., ''lion'' is often seen with ''cowardly'' and ''king''). As British linguist [[John Rupert Firth]] says, "You shall know a word by the company it keeps".
The environment in which children live may also impact their ability to acquire reading skills. Children who are regularly exposed to chronic environmental noise pollution, such as highway traffic noise, have been known to show decreased ability to discriminate between [[phonemes]] (oral language sounds) as well as lower reading scores on standardized tests.<ref name="CohenGlass1973">{{cite journal|last1=Cohen|first1=Sheldon|last2=Glass|first2=David C.|last3=Singer|first3=Jerome E.|title=Apartment noise, auditory discrimination, and reading ability in children|journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology|volume=9 |issue=5|year=1973 |pages=407–422 |issn=0022-1031 |doi=10.1016/S0022-1031(73)80005-8}}</ref>
===Reading to children: necessary but not sufficient===
Children learn to speak naturally - by listening to other people speak. However, reading is not a natural process, and most children learn to read through a process that requires "systematic guidance and feedback".
So, "reading to children is not the same as teaching children to read". Nonetheless, reading to children is important because it socializes them to the activity of reading; it engages them; it expands their knowledge of spoke language; and it enriches their linguist ability by hearing new and novel words and grammatical structures. Reading and speech are codependent: a richer vocabulary facilitates skilled reading, and reading promotes vocabulary development. There is also some evidence that "shared reading" with children does help to improve reading if the children's attention is directed to the words on the page as they are being read to.<ref name="MyersBotting2008">{{cite journal |last1=Myers|first1=L. |last2=Botting|first2=N. |title=Literacy in the mainstream inner-city school: Its relationship to spoken language|journal=Child Language Teaching and Therapy|volume=24 |issue=1|year=2008 |pages=95–114|issn=0265-6590 |doi=10.1177/0265659007084570|s2cid=145153275 |url=http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/13719/3/Lucy%20RC%20paper%20revised%20CRO.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Increasing Young Children's Contact With Print During Shared Reading: Longitudinal Effects on Literacy Achievement, 2012-04-17, 1467–8624.2012.01754.x|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01754.x|pmid=22506889|last1=Piasta|first1=S. B.|last2=Justice|first2=L. M.|last3=McGinty|first3=A. S.|last4=Kaderavek|first4=J. N.|journal=Child Development|volume=83|issue=3|pages=810–20}}</ref>
===Stages to skilled reading===
The path to skilled reading involves learning the [[alphabetic principle]], [[phonemic awareness]], [[phonics]], fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=National reading panel, nichd.nih.gov}}</ref>
British psychologist [[Uta Frith]] introduced a three stages model to acquire skilled reading. Stage one is the ''logographic or pictorial stage'' where students attempt to grasp words as objects. Stage two is the ''phonological stage'' where students learn the relationship between the graphemes (letters) and the phonemes (sounds). Stage three is the ''orthographic stage'' where students read familiar words more quickly than unfamiliar words, but word length gradually ceases to play a role.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stanislas Dehaene|title=Reading in the brain|pages=199–204|publisher=Penquin Books|date=2010-10-26|isbn=9780143118053}}</ref>
===Age to introduce literacy learning===
There is some debate as to the optimum age to teach children to read.
The [[Common Core State Standards Initiative]] (CCSS) in the USA has standards for foundational reading skills in kindergarten and grade one that include instruction in print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics, word recognition and fluency. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/RF/K/|title= Common Core State Standards Initiative (USA), kindergarten}}</ref> However, some critics of CCSS say that "To achieve [reading standards] usually calls for long hours of drill and worksheets — and reduces other vital areas of learning such as math, science, social studies, art, music and creative play." <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2015/01/13/report-requiring-kindergartners-to-read-as-common-core-does-may-harm-some/|title=Report: Requiring kindergartners to read — as Common Core does — may harm some|last=Strauss|first=Valerie|date=13 January 2015|work=The Washington Post}}</ref>
The [[Programme for International Student Assessment|PISA 2007]] OECD data from 54 countries demonstrates "no association between school entry age ... and reading achievement at age 15".<ref name="Suggate">Sebastian Suggate, "Watering the garden before a rainstorm: the case of early reading instruction" in ''Contemporary Debates in Childhood Education and Development'', ed. Sebastian Suggate, Elaine Reese. pp. 181–190.</ref> Also, a German study of 50 kindergartens compared children who, at age 5, had spent a year either "academically focused", or "play-arts focused" and found that in time the two groups became inseparable in reading skill.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Suggate | first1 = S. P. | last2 = Schaughency | first2 = E. A. | last3 = Reese | first3 = E. | title = Children learning to read later catch up to children reading earlier | doi = 10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.04.004 | journal = Early Childhood Research Quarterly | volume = 28 | pages = 33–48 | year = 2013 }}</ref> The authors conclude that the effects of early reading are like "watering a garden before a rainstorm; the earlier watering is rendered undetectable by the rainstorm, the watering wastes precious water, and the watering detracts the gardener from other important preparatory groundwork."<ref name=Suggate/>
Some scholars favor a [[developmentally appropriate practice]] (DPA) in which formal instruction on reading begins when children are about six or seven years old. And to support that theory some point out that children in [[Finland]] start school at age 7 (Finland ranked 5th in the 2016 [[PIRLS]] international grade four reading achievement.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/international-results/pirls/student-achievement/pirls-achievement-results/|title=PIRLS 2016 Redding achievement}}</ref> In a discussion on academic kindergartens, professor of child development [[David Elkind]] has argued that, since "there is no solid research demonstrating that early academic training is superior to (or worse than) the more traditional, hands-on model of early education", educators should defer to developmental approaches that provide young children with ample time and opportunity to explore the natural world on their own terms.<ref name="Elkind">{{cite journal|first=David |last=Elkind |title=Much Too Early| journal= Education Next|year= 2001 |url=http://educationnext.org/much-too-early/}}</ref> Elkind emphasized the principle that "early education must start with the child, not with the subject matter to be taught."<ref name="Elkind" /> In response, [[Grover J. Whitehurst]], Director, Brown Center on Education Policy, (part of [[Brookings Institution]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brookings.edu/about/centers/brown/about|title=Brown centre on education policy}}</ref> said David Elkind is relying too much on philosophies of education rather than science and research. He continues to say education practices are "doomed to cycles of fad and fancy" until they become more based on [[Evidence-based education|evidence-based practice]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://californiapolicycenter.org/tag/grover-j-whitehurst/|title=Transitional Kindergarten: A Boondoggle by any other name, Brown Center on Education Policy, 2014-01-14}}</ref>
On the subject of Finland's academic results, as some researchers point out, prior to starting school Finnish children must participate in one year of compulsory free pre-primary education and most are reading before they start school.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/encyclopedia/countries/finland/overview-of-the-education-system/|title=PIRLS Finland Education nation system}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/when-should-reading-instruction-begin|title=When should reading instruction begin, Shanahan on literacy, 2019-10-26}}</ref> And, with respect to ''developmentally appropriate practice'' (DPA), in 2019 the [[National Association for the Education of Young Children]], Washington, DC released a draft position paper on DPA saying “The notion that young children are not ready for academic subject matter is a misunderstanding of developmentally appropriate practice; particularly in grades 1 through 3, almost all subject matter can be taught in ways that are meaningful and engaging for each child.” <ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/2nd_public_draft_dap.pdf|title= NAEYC Position Statement on Developmentally Appropriate Practice: 2020, PROPOSED FINAL DRAFT – NOT FOR CITATION}}</ref> And, researchers at [[The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential]] say it is a myth that early readers are bored or become trouble makers in school.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://iahp.org/myths-reading/|title=Myths about reading, 2017-07-20}}</ref>
Other researchers and educators favor limited amounts of literacy instruction at the age of four and five, in addition to non-academic, intellectually stimulating activities.<ref name="vanKleeck2010">{{Cite journal | last1 = Van Kleeck | first1 = A. | last2 = Schuele | first2 = C. M. | doi = 10.1044/1058-0360(2010/09-0038) | title = Historical Perspectives on Literacy in Early Childhood | journal = American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 341–355 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20581109}}</ref> Some parents teach their children to read as babies. Some say that babies learn to read differently and more easily than children who learn to read in school from formal instruction. They also suggest, the most important aspect of early (baby) reading is interaction with loving parents and bonding.<ref>Paraphrased quote from Dr. Richard Gentry (Ph.D Reading Education). Online link: http://forum.brillkids.com/teaching-your-child-to-read/please-welcome-dr-richard-gentry-to-brillkids!-(interview-re-early-reading)/</ref>
There does not appear to be any definitive research about the “magic window” to begin reading instruction.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/when-should-reading-instruction-begin|title=When should reading instruction begin, Shanahan on literacy, 2019-10-26}}</ref> However, there is also no definitive research to suggest that starting early causes any harm. Researcher [[Timothy Shanahan (educator)|Timothy Shanahan]], suggests, "Start teaching reading from the time you have kids available to teach, and pay attention to how they respond to this instruction—both in terms of how well they are learning what you are teaching, and how happy and invested they seem to be. If you haven't started yet, don't feel guilty, just get going."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/when-should-reading-instruction-begin|title=When should reading instruction begin, Shanahan on literacy, 2019-10-26}}</ref>
==Reading development==
According to some researchers, learners (children and adults) progress through several stages while first learning to read in English, and then refining their reading skills. One of the recognized experts in this area is [[Harvard]] professor [[Jeanne Chall|Jeanne Sternlicht Chall]]. In 1983 she published a book entitled ''Stages of Reading Development'' that proposed the following stages:<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CPslAQAAIAAJ|title=Stages of Reading Development, ISBN 0070103801, 9780070103801, 1983|isbn=9780070103801|last1=Chall|first1=Jeanne Sternlicht|year=1983}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://newlearningonline.com/literacies/chapter-15/chall-on-stages-of-reading-development|title=Chall on Stages of Reading Development, Chall, Jeanne. 1983. Stages of Reading Development. New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 10-24}}</ref>
'''Stage 0. Prereading:''' Birth to Age 6
* Developing their oral language skills as well as their knowledge about letters, language—syntax, and language sounds.
'''Stage 1. Initial Reading, or Decoding:''' Grades 1-2, Ages 6-7
* Learning the association between sounds ([[phonemes]]) and letters ([[graphemes]]), or spellings, depending on whether they learn by the [[phonics]] method or the [[sight word]] method.
'''Stage 2. Confirmation, Fluency, Ungluing from Print:''' Grades 2-3, Ages 7-8
* Consolidating what was learned in Stage 1. Acquiring basic decoding skills, and increasing fluency and speed.
'''Stage 3. Reading for "Learning the New":''' Grades 3-9, Ages 8-14
* Using the new skills to learn new information, and explore new thoughts and experiences.
'''Stage 4. Multiple Viewpoints:''' High School, Ages 14—18
* Reading high-school texts with increased complexity and length, and expressing multiple points of view.
'''Stage 5. Construction and Reconstruction — A World View:''' College, Age 18 and Above
* The ability to choose what to read and what not to read.
[[File:School in Laos - Reading time.jpg|thumb|Reading time at a primary school in rural Laos. Learning to read poses different challenges in Laos compared to English-speaking countries. The written language follows clear phonetic rules, so the mechanics of reading are easier than with English. However, children learn from a teacher with a blackboard, and get little or no opportunity to improve their reading skills by reading for pleasure. Most schools have no library and no books except textbooks; even fourth-grade students often cannot read a full sentence. The daily reading period shown here uses books provided by Big Brother Mouse, which promotes reading in Lao schools and villages.]]
Subsequently, in 2008 [[Maryanne Wolf]], [[UCLA Graduate School of Education and Information Studies]], published a book entitled ''Proust and the squid'' in which she describes her view of the following five stages of reading development.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.harpercollins.com/products/proust-and-the-squid-maryanne-wolf?variant=32122454671394|title=Proust and the Squid|author=Maryanne Wolf|publisher=Harper Perennial|date=2008-08-26|isbn=9780060933845}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theliteracybug.com/stages|title=Five Stages of Reading Development, The Literacy Bug}}</ref> It is normal that children will move through these stages at different rates; however, typical ages are shown below.
===Emerging pre-reader - 6 months to 6 years old===
The emerging pre-reader stage, also known as [[reading readiness]], usually lasts for the first five years of a child's life.<ref name="Wolf, 2007, 115-139">{{cite book |author1=Wolf, Maryanne |author2=Stoodley, Catherine J. |title=Proust and the squid: the story and science of the reading brain |publisher=Harper |___location=New York |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/115 115–139] |isbn=978-0-06-018639-5 |oclc=471015779 |url=https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/115 }}</ref> Children typically speak their first few words before their first birthday.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theroadmap.ualberta.ca/vocalizings/parents/10-12|title=Handbook of Language and Literacy, Canadian Centre for Research on Literacy, University of Alberta, Canada}}</ref>
Reading to children helps them to develop their vocabulary, a love of reading, and [[phonemic awareness]], (the ability to hear and manipulate the individual sounds ([[phonemes]]) of oral language). And children will often "read" stories they have memorized. However, in the late 1990s United States' researchers found that the traditional way of reading to children made little difference in their later ability to read because children spend relatively little time actually looking at the text. Yet, in a shared reading program with four-year old children, teachers found that directing children's attention to the letters and words (e.g. verbally or pointing to the words) made a significant difference in early reading, spelling and comprehension.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2012/05/29/153927743/small-change-in-reading-to-preschoolers-can-help-disadvantaged-kids-catch-up|title=Small Change In Reading To Preschoolers Can Help Disadvantaged Kids Catch Up|agency=NPR|author=Alix Spegel|date=2012-05-29|access-date=2012-07-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Increasing Young Children's Contact With Print During Shared Reading: Longitudinal Effects on Literacy Achievement, 2012-04-17, 1467–8624.2012.01754.x|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01754.x|pmid=22506889|last1=Piasta|first1=S. B.|last2=Justice|first2=L. M.|last3=McGinty|first3=A. S.|last4=Kaderavek|first4=J. N.|journal=Child Development|volume=83|issue=3|pages=810–20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/article/simple-yet-powerful-things-do-while-reading-aloud|title=Simple Yet Powerful Things to Do While Reading Aloud, Reading Rockets}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://theroadmap.ualberta.ca/readings/parents/49-60|title=Canadian Language and Literacy Research Network, Handbook 0 to 60 Months}}</ref>
===Novice reader - 6 to 7 years old===
Novice readers continue to develop their phonemic awareness, and come to realise that the letters ([[graphemes]]) connect to the sounds ([[phonemes]]) of the language; known as decoding, [[phonics]], and the [[alphabetic principle]]. They may also memorize the most common letter patterns and some of the frequent words that do not necessarily follow basic phonological rules (e.g. ''have and who''). However, it is a mistake to assume a reader understands the meaning of a text merely because they can decode it. Vocabulary and oral language comprehension are also important parts of text comprehension as described in the [[Simple view of reading]].
===Decoding reader - 7 to 9 years old===
The transition from the novice reader stage to the decoding stage is marked by a reduction of painful pronunciations and in its place the sounds of a smoother, more confident reader.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.harpercollins.com/products/proust-and-the-squid-maryanne-wolf?variant=32122454671394|title=Proust and the Squid|pages=126–133|author=Maryanne Wolf|publisher=Harper Perennial|isbn=9780060933845|date=2008-08-26}}</ref> In this phase the reader adds at least 3,000 words to what they can decode. For example, in the English language, readers now learn the variations of the vowel-based [[Syllable#Rime|rimes]] (e.g. s'''at''', m'''at''', c'''at''')<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/onset_rime|title=Rimes, Reading Rockets}}</ref> and [[vowel]] pairs (also [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]) (e.g. r'''ai'''n, pl'''ay''', b'''oa'''t)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading101-course/modules/phonics/phonics-practice|title=Phonics, Reading Rockets}}</ref>
As readers move forward, they learn the make up of [[morphemes]] (i.e. stems, roots, [[prefixes]] and [[suffixes]]). They learn the common morphemes such as "s" and "ed" and see them as "sight chunks". "The faster a child can see that ''beheaded'' is ''be + head + ed"'', the faster they will become a more fluent reader.
In the beginning of this stage a child will often be devoting so much mental capacity to the process of decoding that they will have no understanding of the words being read. It is nevertheless an important stage, allowing the child to achieve their ultimate goal of becoming fluent and automatic.
It is in the decoding phase that the child will get to what the story is really about, and to learn to re-read a passage when necessary so as to truly understand it.
===Fluent, comprehending reader - 9 to 15 years old===
The goal of this stage is to "go below the surface of the text", and in the process the reader will build their knowledge of spelling substantially.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.harpercollins.com/products/proust-and-the-squid-maryanne-wolf?variant=32122454671394|title=Proust and the Squid|pages=136–143|author=Maryanne Wolf|publisher=Harper Perennial|isbn=9780060933845|date=2008-08-26}}</ref>
Teachers and parents may be tricked by fluent-sounding reading into thinking that a child understands everything that they are reading. As the content of what they are able to read becomes more demanding, good readers will develop knowledge of [[figurative language]] and [[irony]] which helps them to discover new meanings in the text.
Children improve their comprehension when they use a variety of tools such as connecting prior knowledge, predicting outcomes, drawing inferences, and monitoring gaps in their understanding. One of the most powerful moments is when fluent comprehending readers learn to enter into the lives of imagined heroes and heroines.
The [[educational psychologist]], [[G. Michael Pressley]], concluded there are two important aids to fluent comprehension: explicit instruction in major content areas by a child's teacher, and the child's own desire to read.
At the end of this stage many processes are starting to become automatic, allowing the reader to focus on meaning. With the decoding process almost automatic by this point, the brain learns to integrate more [[metaphorical]], inferential, [[analogical]], background and [[experiential knowledge]]. This stage in learning to read will often last until early adulthood.<ref name="Wolf143">{{cite book |author1=Wolf, Maryanne |author2=Stoodley, Catherine J. |title=Proust and the squid: the story and science of the reading brain |publisher=Harper |___location=New York |year=2007 |pages=139-143[https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/pages/139-143] |isbn=978-0-06-018639-5 |oclc=471015779 |url=https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf}}</ref>
===Expert reader - 16 years and older===
At the expert stage it will usually only take a reader one-half second to read almost any word.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.harpercollins.com/products/proust-and-the-squid-maryanne-wolf?variant=32122454671394|title=Proust and the Squid|pages=143–162|author=Maryanne Wolf|publisher=Harper Perennial|isbn=9780060933845|date=2008-08-26}}</ref> The degree to which expert reading will change over the course of an [[adult|adult's]] life depends on what they read and how much they read.
==Reading instruction by grade level==
Viewed from a different perspective, some education researchers suggest the teaching of the various reading components by specific grade levels.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/article/what-should-be-emphasized-each-stage-reading-development|title=What Should Be Emphasized at Each Stage of Reading Development, Louisa Moats, Carol Tolman, Reading Rockets}}</ref> The following is one example from Carol Tolman, Ed.D and Louisa Moats, Ed.D that corresponds in many respects with the [[Common Core State Standards Initiative]]:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/RF/K/|title=Common Core States Standard Initiative, English language arts}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! class="unsortable" |Reading instruction component
! class="unsortable" |Tolman & Moats
! class="unsortable" |Common Core
|-
|Phonological awareness
|K-1
|K-1
|-
|Basic phonics
|K-1
|K-1
|-
|Vocabulary
|K-6+
|K-6+
|-
|Comprehension
|K-6+
|K-6+
|-
|Written expression
|1-6+
|K-6+
|-
|Fluency
|1-3
|1-5
|-
|Advanced phonics/decoding
|2-6+
|2-5
|}
==Science of reading==
{{See also|Evidence-based education}}
There is no single definition of Science of reading (SOR). Foundational skills such as [[phonics]] (decoding) and [[phonemic awareness]] are considered to be important parts of the science of reading, but they are not the only ingredients. SOR includes any [[Evidence-based education|research and evidence]] about how humans learn to read, and how reading should be taught. This includes areas such as oral reading fluency, vocabulary, [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], reading comprehension, text, spelling and pronunciation, thinking strategies, oral language proficiency, working memory training, and written language performance (e.g., cohesion, sentence combining/reducing).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.literacyworldwide.org/get-resources/making-sense-of-the-science-of-reading|title=Science of reading, International Literacy Association, September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/blogs/shanahan-literacy/what-science-reading|title=What Is the Science of Reading, Timothy Shanahan, Reading Rockets|date=2019-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Education and Urban Society, A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Phonics Instruction and Minority Elementary School Student Academic Achievement|date=2007-06-29|doi=10.1177/0013124507304128|s2cid=144436616}}</ref>
In addition, some educators feel that SOR should include digital literacy; background knowledge; content-rich instruction; infrastructural pillars (curriculum, reimagined teacher preparation, and leadership); adaptive teaching (recognizing the student's individual, culture and linguistic strengths); bi-literacy development; equity, social justice and supporting underserved populations (e.g., students from low-income backgrounds).
Some researchers suggest there is a need for more studies on the relationship between theory and practice. They say "we know more about the science of reading than about the science of teaching based on the science of reading", and “there are many layers between basic science findings and teacher implementation that must be traversed.”
In cognitive science there is likely no area that has been more successful than the study of reading. Yet, in many countries reading levels are considered low. In the USA, the 2019 ''Nations Report Card'' reported that 34% of grade-four public school students performed at or above the [[NAEP]] ''proficient level'' (solid academic performance) and 65% performed at or above the ''basic level'' (partial mastery of the proficient level skills).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/subject/publications/stt2019/pdf/2020014NP4.pdf|title=NAEP 2019 grade 4 reading report}}</ref> As reported in the [[PIRLS]] study, the USA ranked 15th out of 50 countries, for reading comprehension levels of fourth-graders.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/international-results/wp-content/uploads/structure/PIRLS/3.-achievement-in-purposes-and-comprehension-processes/3_1_achievement-in-reading-purposes.pdf|title=PIRLS 2016 Exhibit 3.1: Achievement in Reading Purposes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/1147045/singapores-fourth-graders-read-at-the-most-advanced-level-in-a-global-test-of-literacy/|title=Where the world's fourth-graders read at the most advanced level, Barclays, 2017-12-05}}</ref> In addition, according to the 2011–2018 [[PIAAC]] study, out of 39 countries the USA ranked 19th for literacy levels of adults 16 to 65; and 16.9% of adults in the USA read at or below level one (out of five levels).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publications/Skills_Matter_Additonal_Results_from_the_Survey_of_Adult_Skills_ENG.pdf|title=OECD (2019), Skills Matter: Additional Results from the Survey of Adult Skills, OECD Skills Studies, doi.org/10.1787/1f029d8f-en, page 44}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/Skills%20volume%201%20(eng)--full%20v12--eBook%20(04%2011%202013).pdf|title=OECD Skills Outlook 2013, page 257}}</ref>
Many researchers are concerned that low reading levels are due to the manner in which reading is taught. They point to three areas: a) contemporary reading science has had very little impact on educational practice mainly because of a "two-cultures problem separating science and education", b) current teaching practices rest on outdated assumptions that make learning to read harder than it needs to be, and c) connecting [[Evidence-based education|evidence-based practice]] to educational practice would be beneficial but is extremely difficult to achieve because many teachers are not properly trained in the science of reading.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Science of Reading and Its Educational Implications, pages 331-360|author=Mark S. Seidenberg|journal=PMC|date=2013-08-26|doi=10.1080/15475441.2013.812017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4020782/|title=The Science of Reading and Its Educational Implications|date=2013-08-26}}</ref>
===The Simple view of reading===
{{MAIN|Simple view of reading}}
''The simple view of reading'' is a scientific theory about reading comprehension. According to the theory, in order to comprehend what they are reading students need both ''decoding skills'' and ''oral language (listening) comprehension ability''. Neither is enough on their own. In other words, they need the ability to recognize and process (e.g., sound out) the text and the ability to understand the language in which the text is written (i.e., vocabulary, grammar and background knowledge).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sedl.org/reading/framework/overview.html |author1=Hoover, Wesley A. |author2=Gough, Philip B. |title=Overview – The Cognitive Foundations of Learning to Read: A Framework |work=The Cognitive Foundations of Learning to Read: A Framework }}</ref> Students are not reading if they can decode words but do not understand their meaning. Similarly, students are not reading if they cannot decode words that they would ordinarily recognize and understand if they heard them spoken out loud.<ref name="auto">{{cite journal |last1=Castles |first1=Anne |last2=Rastle |first2=Kathleen |last3=Nation |first3=Kate |title=Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition From Novice to Expert |journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest |date=11 June 2018 |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=27 |doi=10.1177/1529100618772271|pmid=29890888 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/article/simple-view-reading|title=Simple view of reading, Reading rockets}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/what-kind-of-early-reading-intervention-should-we-provide|title=What Kind of Early Reading Intervention Should We Provide, Timothy Shanahan, 2020-11-14}}</ref>
It is expressed in the equation '''D x LC = RC''':
'''Decoding (D) x Oral Language (listening) Comprehension (LC) = Reading Comprehension (RC)''' <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kendeou |first1=Panayiota |last2=Savage |first2=Robert |last3=Broek |first3=Paul |title=Revisiting the simple view of reading |journal=British Journal of Educational Psychology |date=June 2009 |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=353–370 |doi=10.1348/978185408X369020|pmid=19091164 }}</ref>
===Scarborough’s Reading Rope===
[[Hollis Scarborough]] Ph.D., the creator of the Reading Rope and senior scientist at [[Haskins Laboratories]], is a leading researcher of early language development and its connection to later literacy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://haskinslabs.org/people/hollis-scarborough|title=Hollis Scarborough, Ph.D., Haskins Laboratories, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA}}</ref>
Dr. Scarborough published the Reading Rope infographic in 2001 using strands of rope to illustrate the many ingredients that are involved in becoming a skilled reader. The upper strands represent ''language-comprehension'' and reinforce one another. The lower strands represent ''word-recognition'' and work together as the reader becomes accurate, fluent, and automatic through practice. The upper and lower strands all weave together to produce a skilled reader.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dyslexiaida.org/scarboroughs-reading-rope-a-groundbreaking-infographic/|title=Scarborough’s Reading Rope: A Groundbreaking Infographic, International Dyslexia Association (IDA), volume 7, issue 2|date=April 2018}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! class="unsortable" |Language-comprehension (Upper strands)
|-
|Background knowledge (facts, concepts, etc.)
|-
|Vocabulary (breadth, precision, links, etc.)
|-
|Language structures (syntax, semantics, etc.)
|-
|Verbal reasoning (inference, metaphor, etc.)
|-
|Literacy knowledge (print concepts, genres, etc.)
|-
! class="unsortable" |Word-recognition (Lower strands)
|-
|Phonological awareness (syllable, phonemes, etc.)
|-
|Decoding (alphabetic principle, spelling-sound correspondence)
|-
|Sight recognition (of familiar words)
|-
|}
==Teaching reading==
[[File:Reading_with_Children_%28Millais%29.png|thumb|Reading with children]]
===Alphabetic languages===
Educators have debated for years about which method is best to teach reading for the English language. There are three main methods, [[phonics]], [[whole language]] and [[balanced literacy]]. There are also a variety of other areas and practices such as [[phonemic awareness]], fluency, reading comprehension, sight words and sight vocabulary, the three-cueing system (the searchlights model in England), [[guided reading]], [[shared reading]], and leveled reading. Each practice is employed in different manners depending on the country and the specific school division.
In 2001, some researchers reached two conclusions: 1) "mastering the alphabetic principle is essential" and 2) "instructional techniques (namely, phonics) that teach this principle directly are more effective than those that do not". However, while they make it clear they have some fundamental disagreements with some of the claims made by whole-language advocates, some principles of whole language have value such as the need to ensure that students are enthusiastic about books and eager to learn to read.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/pspi/pdf/pspi22.pdf|title=HOW PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE INFORMS THE TEACHING OF READING, American Psychological Society, VOL. 2, NO. 2, NOVEMBER 2001, page 57}}</ref>
====Phonics and related areas====
{{Main|Phonics}}
[[Phonics]] emphasizes the [[alphabetic principle]] – the idea that letters ([[graphemes]]) represent the sounds of speech ([[phonemes]]). It is taught in a variety of ways; some are systematic and others are unsystematic. Unsystematic phonics teaches phonics on a "when needed" basis and in no particular sequence. [[phonics#Systematic phonics|''Systematic'' phonics]] uses a planned, sequential introduction of a set of phonic elements along with ''explicit'' teaching and practice of those elements. The [[National Reading Panel]] (NPR) concluded that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than unsystematic phonics or non-phonics instruction.
Phonics approaches include analogy phonics, analytic phonics, embedded phonics with mini-lessons, phonics through spelling, and synthetic phonics.<ref name='Neural Representations'>{{cite journal |vauthors=Borowsky R, Esopenko C, Cummine J, Sarty GE |title=Neural representations of visual words and objects: a functional MRI study on the modularity of reading and object processing |journal= Brain Topogr |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=89–96 |year=2007 |pmid=17929158 |doi=10.1007/s10548-007-0034-1|s2cid=1640138 }}</ref><ref name='Ventral and Dorsal Streams'>{{cite journal |vauthors=Borowsky R, Cummine J, Owen WJ, Friesen CK, Shih F, Sarty GE |title=FMRI of ventral and dorsal processing streams in basic reading processes: insular sensitivity to phonology |journal=Brain Topogr |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=233–9 |year=2006 |pmid=16845597 |doi=10.1007/s10548-006-0001-2|s2cid=10815942 }}</ref><ref name='Chinese Ventral and Dorsal Streams'>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chan ST, Tang SW, Tang KW, Lee WK, Lo SS, Kwong KK |title=Hierarchical coding of characters in the ventral and dorsal visual streams of Chinese language processing |journal=NeuroImage |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=423–35 |date = November 2009|pmid=19591947 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.078|s2cid=23720865 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/pspi/pdf/pspi22.pdf|title=HOW PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE INFORMS THE TEACHING OF READING, American Psychological Society, VOL. 2, NO. 2, NOVEMBER 2001}}</ref><ref name='Changes Reading Strategies'>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sanabria Díaz G, Torres Mdel R, Iglesias J, etal |title=Changes in reading strategies in school-age children |journal=Span J Psychol |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=441–53 |date = November 2009|pmid=19899646 |doi=10.1017/S1138741600001827}}</ref>
According to a 2018 review of research related to ''English speaking poor readers'', phonics training is effective for improving literacy-related skills, particularly the fluent reading of words and non-words, and the accurate reading of irregular words.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McArthur|first1=Genevieve|last2=Sheehan|first2=Yumi|last3=Badcock|first3=Nicholas A.|last4=Francis|first4=Deanna A.|last5=Wang|first5=Hua-Chen|last6=Kohnen|first6=Saskia|last7=Banales|first7=Erin|last8=Anandakumar|first8=Thushara|last9=Marinus|first9=Eva|last10=Castles|first10=Anne|date=14 November 2018|title=Phonics training for English-speaking poor readers|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=11|pages=CD009115|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009115.pub3|issn=1469-493X|pmc=6517252|pmid=30480759}}</ref>
In addition, phonics produces higher achievement for all beginning readers, and the greatest improvement is experienced by students who are at risk of failing to learn to read. While some children are able to infer these rules on their own, some need explicit instruction on phonics rules. Some phonics instruction has marked benefits such as expansion of a student's vocabulary. Overall, children who are directly taught phonics are better at reading, spelling and comprehension.<ref name="Seidenberg, Mark 2017">{{cite book |author=Seidenberg, Mark |title=Language at the speed of sight|publisher=Basic Books|___location=New York, NY|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5416-1715-5}}</ref>
A disadvantage to teaching phonics is that in some languages, such as English, complex letter-sound correspondences can cause confusion for beginning readers. For this reason, it is recommended that teachers of English-reading begin by introducing the "most frequent sounds" and the "common spellings", and save the less frequent sounds and complex spellings for later. (e.g. the sounds /s/ and /t/ before /v/ and /w/; and the spellings c'''a'''ke before '''eigh'''t and '''c'''at before du'''ck''').<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/pspi/pdf/pspi22.pdf|title=HOW PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE INFORMS THE TEACHING OF READING, American Psychological Society, VOL. 2, NO. 2, NOVEMBER 2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Rayner|first=Keith|author2=Barbara Foorman |author3=Charles Perfetti |author4=David Pesetsky |author5=Mark Seidenberg |title=How Should Reading be Taught?|journal=Scientific American|date=March 2002|volume=286|issue=3|pages=84–91 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0302-84|pmid=11857904|url=http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/reading.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nysed.gov/common/nysed/files/programs/curriculum-instruction/nys-next-generation-ela-standards.pdf|title=NY English Language Arts Learning Standards, page 22, 2017}}</ref>
Phonics is gaining [[Phonics#Practices by country or region|world-wide acceptance]].
=====Combining phonics with other literacy instruction=====
Phonics is taught in many different ways and it is often taught together with some of the following: oral language skills,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/evidence-summaries/teaching-learning-toolkit/oral-language-interventions/|title=Oral language interventions, Education endowment foundation, UK}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/219627/DFE-RR247-BCRP13.pdf|title=Exploring interventions for children and young people with speech, language and communication needs: A study of practice, UK Government}}</ref> concepts about print,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/readingviewing/Pages/litfocusconceptsprint.aspx|title=Concepts of print-'how print works', Education, Victoria, AU}}</ref> [[phonological awareness]], [[phonemic awareness]], [[phonology]], oral reading [[fluency]], vocabulary, [[syllables]], [[reading comprehension]], [[spelling]], word study,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/inspire/research/WW_Word_Study.pdf, |title=Word Study Instruction:Enhancing Reading Comprehension, 03-09-2010, Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat, ON}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/article/word-study-instruction-k-2-classroom|title=Word Study Instruction in the K-2 Classroom, Reading Rockets}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/inspire/research/WW_Morphology.pdf|title=Morphology Works, Queen's University, Canada}}</ref> [[cooperative learning]], [[multisensory learning]], and [[guided reading]]. And, phonics is often featured in discussions about [[#Science of reading|science of reading]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.alea.edu.au/documents/item/1869|title=Exploding some of the myths about learning to read, NSW Teachers Federation, AU}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/blogs/shanahan-literacy/what-science-reading|title=What Is the Science of Reading? Timothy Shanahan, Reading Rockets 2019-05-29}}</ref> and [[evidence-based education|evidence-based practices]].
The [[National Reading Panel]] (U.S.A. 2000) suggests that phonics be taught together with phonemic awareness, oral fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. [[Timothy Shanahan (educator)]], a member of that panel, recommends that primary students receive 60–90 minutes per day of explicit, systematic, literacy instruction time; and that it be divided equally between a) words and word parts (e.g. letters, sounds, decoding and phonemic awareness), b) oral reading fluency, c) reading comprehension, and d) writing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/why-an-overemphasis-on-foundational-reading-skills-makes-kids-sick|title=Foundational reading skills, Timothy Shanahan, Shanahan on literacy}}</ref> Furthermore, he states that "the phonemic awareness skills found to give the greatest reading advantage to kindergarten and first-grade children are ''segmenting and blending''".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED489535.pdf|title=THE NATIONAL READING PANEL REPORT: Practical Advice for Teachers, page 9, Timothy Shanahan, University of Illinois at Chicago, Learning Point Associates 2005.}}</ref>
The Ontario Association of Deans of Education (Canada) published research Monograph # 37 entitled ''Supporting early language and literacy'' with suggestions for parents and teachers in helping children prior to grade one. It covers the areas of letter names and letter-sound correspondence (phonics), as well as conversation, play-based learning, print, phonological awareness, shared reading, and vocabulary.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/inspire/research/ww_early_language.pdf|title=Supporting early language and literacy #37}}</ref>
=====Effectiveness of programs=====
Some researchers report that teaching reading without teaching phonics is harmful to large numbers of students; yet not all phonics teaching programs produce effective results. The reason is that the effectiveness of a program depends on using the right curriculum together with the appropriate approach to instruction techniques, classroom management, grouping, and other factors.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://robertslavinsblog.wordpress.com/2020/03/26/science-of-reading-can-we-get-beyond-our-30-year-pillar-fight/|title=Science of reading, Robert Slavin's blog.}}</ref>
Interest in [[evidence-based education]] appears to be growing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://researched.org.uk|title=researchED.org.uk}}</ref> In 2019, [[#Best Evidence Encyclopedia (BEE)|Best evidence encyclopedia]] (BEE) released a review of research on 48 different programs for struggling readers in elementary schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bestevidence.org/word/strug_read_April_2019_full.pdf|title=A Quantitative Synthesis of Research on Programs for Struggling Readers in Elementary Schools, Best Evidence Encyclopedia, April 24, 2019}}</ref> Many of the programs used phonics-based teaching and/or one or more of the following: [[cooperative learning]], technology-supported adaptive instruction (see [[Educational technology]]), [[metacognitive]] skills, [[phonemic awareness]], word reading, [[fluency]], [[vocabulary]], [[multisensory learning]], [[spelling]], [[guided reading]], [[reading comprehension]], word analysis, structured [[curriculum]], and [[balanced literacy]] (non-phonetic approach).
The BEE review concludes that a) outcomes were positive for one-to-one tutoring, b) outcomes were positive but not as large for one-to-small group tutoring, c) there were no differences in outcomes between teachers and teaching assistants as tutors, d) technology-supported adaptive instruction did not have positive outcomes, e) whole-class approaches (mostly cooperative learning) and whole-school approaches incorporating tutoring obtained outcomes for struggling readers as large as those found for one- to-one tutoring, and benefitted many more students, and f) approaches mixing classroom and school improvements, with tutoring for the most [[at-risk students]], have the greatest potential for the largest numbers of struggling readers.
Robert Slavin, of BEE, goes so far as to suggest that states should "hire thousands of tutors" to support students scoring far below grade level - particularly in elementary school reading. Research, he says, shows "only tutoring, both one-to-one and one-to-small group, in reading and mathematics, had an [[effect size]] larger than +0.10 ... averages are around +0.30", and "well-trained teaching assistants using structured tutoring materials or software can obtain outcomes as good as those obtained by certified teachers as tutors".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://robertslavinsblog.wordpress.com/2020/10/01/how-much-have-students-lost-in-the-covid-19-shutdowns/|title=How Much Have Students Lost in The COVID-19 Shutdowns?, Robert Slavin, 2020-10-01}}</ref>
[[Evidence-based education#What Works Clearinghouse (WWC)|What works clearinghouse]] allows you to see the effectiveness of specific programs. For example, as of 2020 they have data on 231 literacy programs. If you filter them by grade 1 only, all class types, all school types, all delivery methods, all program types, and all outcomes you receive 22 programs. You can then view the program details and, if you wish, compare one with another.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/FWW/Results?filters=,Literacy|title=What works clearinghouse, Literacy}}</ref>
[[Evidence-based education#Evidence for ESSA|Evidence for ESSA]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.evidenceforessa.org|title=Evidence for ESSA}}</ref> (Center for Research and Reform in Education)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://education.jhu.edu/crre/|title=Center for Research and Reform in Education (CRRE)}}</ref> offers free up-to-date information on current PK-12 programs in reading, writing, math, science, and others that meet the standards of the [[Every Student Succeeds Act]] (U.S.A.).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ed.gov/essa?src=rn|title=Every student succeeds act, US Dept. of Education}}</ref>
=====Systematic phonics=====
''Systematic phonics'' is not one specific method of teaching phonics; it is a term used to describe phonics approaches that are taught ''explicitly'' and in a structured, systematic manner. They are ''systematic'' because the letters and the sounds they relate to are taught in a specific sequence, as opposed to incidentally or on a "when needed" basis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://literacyworldwide.org/docs/default-source/where-we-stand/ila-explaining-phonics-instruction-an-educators-guide.pdf|title= Explaining Phonics Instruction, An Educator's Guide, International Literacy Association, p.1, 2018}}</ref>
The [[National Reading Panel]] (NPR) concluded that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than unsystematic phonics or non-phonics instruction. The NRP also found that systematic phonics instruction is effective (with varying degrees) when delivered through one-to-one tutoring, small groups, and teaching classes of students; and is effective from kindergarten onward, the earlier the better. It helps significantly with word-reading skills and reading comprehension for kindergartners and 1st graders as well as for older struggling readers and reading disabled students. Benefits to spelling were positive for kindergartners and 1st graders but not for older students.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=National Reading Panel, NICHD, p. 2-92 ... 2–96.}}</ref>
Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterized as "skill and drill" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text.<ref name="Ehri-Linnea C. 2020">{{cite journal|last1= Ehri|first1= Linnea C.|title= The science of learning to read words: A case for systematic phonics instruction|journal=Reading Research Quarterly|volume=55S1 |issue=334|year=2020|pages=S57| doi=10.1037/0022-0663.83.4.451}}</ref>
Phonics can be taught systematically in a variety of ways, such as: analogy phonics, analytic phonics, phonics through spelling, and synthetic phonics. However, their effectiveness vary considerably because the methods differ in such areas as the range of letter-sound coverage, the structure of the lesson plans, and the time devoted to specific instructions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100512233640/http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|title=Independent review of the teaching of early reading, Rose report, 2006, UK, pg. 2-89}}</ref>
Systematic phonics has gained increased acceptance in different parts of the world since the completion of three major studies into teaching reading; one in the US in 2000,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www1.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=Complete report - National Reading Panel}}</ref><ref name="nichd findings">{{cite web |url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/findings.cfm |title=Findings and Determinations of the National Reading Panel by Topic Areas |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705194256/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/findings.cfm |archive-date=2008-07-05 }}</ref> another in Australia in 2005,<ref name="Teaching Reading">{{cite web |url=http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=2&article=1004&context=tll_misc&type=additional |title=Teaching Reading |format=PDF |work= Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training. }}</ref> and the other in the UK in 2006.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100512233640/http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|title=Independent review of the teaching of early reading, Final Report, Jim Rose, March 2006}}</ref>
In 2009, the UK [[Department of Education]] published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics. In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as [[Synthetic phonics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100205061400/http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/Primary_curriculum_Report.pdf|title=Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum}}</ref>
Beginning as early as 2014, several States in the USA have changed their curriculum to include systematic phonics instruction in elementary school.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mydigitalchalkboard.org/cognoti/content/file/resources/documents/8c/8cf4adf5/8cf4adf587da2b191c07b09831798d521bc05adc/FrameworkFINALJuly2015.pdf|title=English Language Development Framework for California Public Schools K-12, July 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nysed.gov/curriculum-instruction/english-language-arts-ela-literacy-standards|title=NY English Language Arts (ELA) & Literacy Standards, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://education.ohio.gov/Topics/Operating-Standards/Table-of-Contents/Instruction/Phonics|title=Rules for Phonics, Ohio, 2015}}</ref><ref name="1b">{{cite web|url=http://www.arkansased.gov/divisions/learning-services/r.i.s.e.-arkansas|title=Reading Initiative for Student Excellence, arkansased.gov/divisions/learning-services, 2018}}</ref>
In 2018, the State [[Government of Victoria]], Australia, published a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons.<ref name="Effective Reading Instruction, Victoria, Australia">{{cite web |url=https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/readingviewing/Pages/effectivereading.aspx|title=Effective Reading instruction, The State Government of Victoria}}</ref>
=====Analogy phonics=====
''Analogy phonics'' is a particular type of ''analytic phonics'' in which the teacher has students analyze phonic elements according to the speech sounds ([[Phonogram (linguistics)|phonogram]]s) in the word. For example, a type of phonogram (known in linguistics as a [[syllable rime|rime]]) is composed of the vowel and the consonant sounds that follow it (e.g. in the words ''cat, mat and sat,'' the rime is ''"at"''.) Teachers using the analogy method may have students memorize a bank of phonograms, such as ''-at'' or ''-am'', or use ''word families'' (e.g. c'''an''', r'''an''', m'''an''', or m'''ay''', pl'''ay''', s'''ay''').<ref name="Analogy based phonics, LD Online">{{cite web |url=http://www.ldonline.org/glossary/Analogy-based_phonics|title=Analogy based phonics, LD Online}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www1.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=National Reading Panel, USA, page 2-89}}</ref>
=====Analytic phonics=====
{{Main|Analytic phonics}}
''[[Analytic phonics]]'' does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the ''ou'' spelling of {{IPAc-en|aʊ}} in shr'''ou'''ds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as '''b'''all, '''b'''at and '''b'''ite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as '''br'''eak or '''shr'''ouds''.
<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www1.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=National Reading Panel, USA, page 2-89}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ldaustralia.org/utgp.html|title=Understanding Terminology of Grammar and Phonics}}</ref>
=====Embedded phonics with mini-lessons=====
''Embedded phonics'', also known as ''Incidental phonics'', is the type of phonics instruction used in [[whole language]] programs. It is not ''systematic phonics''. Although phonics skills are de-emphasised in whole language programs, some teachers include phonics "mini-lessons" when students struggle with words while reading from a book. Short lessons are included based on phonics elements the students are having trouble with, or on a new or difficult phonics pattern that appears in a class reading assignment. The focus on meaning is generally maintained, but the mini-lesson provides some time for focus on individual sounds and the letters that represent them. Embedded phonics is different from other methods because instruction is always in the context of literature rather than in separate lessons about distinct sounds and letters; and skills are taught when an opportunity arises, not systematically.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/PRFbooklet.pdf|title=Put reading first booklet, Partnership for reading, National institute for literacy, 3rd ed.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://literacytrust.org.uk/information/what-is-literacy/what-phonics/|title=What is phonics? National literacy trust, UK}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ldaustralia.org/utgp.html|title=Understanding Terminology of Grammar and Phonics, Learning diffeculties, Australia}}</ref>
=====Phonics through spelling=====
For some teachers this is a method of teaching spelling by using the sounds (phonemes).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/article/phonics-instruction|title= Phonics instruction, Reading Rockets}}</ref> However, it can also be a method of teaching reading by focusing on the sounds and their spelling (i.e. phonemes and syllables). It is taught systematically with guided lessons conducted in a direct and explicit manner including appropriate feedback. Sometimes [[mnemonic]] cards containing individual sounds are used to allow the student to practice saying the sounds that are related to a letter or letters (e.g. ''a'', ''e'', ''i'', ''o'', ''u''). Accuracy comes first, followed by speed. The sounds may be grouped by categories such as vowels that sound short (e.g. c-'''a'''-t and s-'''i'''-t). When the student is comfortable recognizing and saying the sounds, the following steps might be followed: a) the tutor says a target word and the student repeats it out loud, b) the student writes down each individual sound (letter) until the word is completely spelled, saying each sound as it is written, and c) the student says the entire word out loud. An alternate method would be to have the student use mnemonic cards to sound-out (spell) the target word.
Typically, the instruction starts with sounds that have only one letter and simple CVC words such as ''sat'' and ''pin''. Then it progresses to longer words, and sounds with more than one letter (e.g. h'''ea'''r and d'''ay'''), and perhaps even syllables (e.g. wa-ter). Sometimes the student practices saying (or sounding-out) cards that contain entire words.<ref>{{cite document|title=Response to Phonics Through Spelling Intervention in Children With Dyslexia, READING & WRITING QUARTERLY, ISSN: 1057-3569 (Print) 1521-0693 (Online), 2020-01-13|doi=10.1080/10573569.2019.1707732|s2cid=212828096}}</ref>
=====Synthetic phonics=====
{{Main|Synthetic phonics}}
''[[Synthetic phonics]]'', also known as blended phonics, is a systematic phonics method employed to teach students to read by ''sounding out'' the letters then ''blending'' the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, ''shrouds'' would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, ''sh,r,ou,d,s'' (IPA {{IPAc-en|ʃ|,_|r|,_|aʊ|,_|d|,_|z}}), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, ''sh - r - ou - d - s= shrouds'' (IPA {{IPAc-en|ʃ|r|aʊ|d|z}}). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in England, Scotland and Australia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum: Final Report|url=https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/Primary_curriculum_Report.pdf|publisher=DCSF Publications|access-date=14 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Teaching Reading: Report and Recommendations|url=http://www.dest.gov.au/nitl/documents/report_recommendations.pdf|publisher=Commonwealth Copyright|access-date=14 November 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812024503/http://www.dest.gov.au/nitl/documents/report_recommendations.pdf|archive-date=12 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Johnston|first=Rhona|title=A Seven Year Study of the Effects of Synthetic Phonics Teaching on Reading and Spelling Attainment|url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2005/02/20682/52383|access-date=14 November 2011|author2=Joyce E Watson |date=11 February 2005}}</ref>
The 2005 [[Rose Report]] from the UK concluded that systematic [[synthetic phonics]] was the most effective method for teaching reading. It also suggests the "best teaching" included a brisk pace, engaging children's interest with [[Multisensory learning|multi-sensory activities]] and stimulating resources, praise for effort and achievement; and above all, the full backing of the headteacher.<ref>{{cite web|title=Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum: Final Report, pages 16 and 49|url=https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/Primary_curriculum_Report.pdf|publisher=DCSF Publications|access-date=14 November 2011}}</ref>
It also has considerable support in some [[Phonics#Phonics in the United States|States]] in the U.S.A.<ref name="NICHD, 2006">{{cite web |url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/findings.cfm |title=Findings and Determinations of the National Reading Panel by Topic Areas |work=NICHD Publications and Materials |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705194256/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/findings.cfm |archive-date=2008-07-05 }}</ref> and some support from expert panels in [[Phonics#Phonics in Canada|Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Early Reading Strategy: The Report of the Expert Panel on Early Reading in Ontario|url=http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/reports/reading/reading.pdf|publisher=Ministry of Education|access-date=14 November 2011|year=2003}}</ref>
In the US, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K-3 reading compared with comparison schools.<ref>[http://www.coreknowledge.org/mimik/mimik_uploads/documents/712/CK%20Early%20Literacy%20Pilot%203%2012%2012.pdf Core Knowledge Early Literacy Pilot in NYC]</ref> In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see [[Synthetic phonics#United States|synthetic phonics in the USA]]).
Resources for teaching phonics are available [[Phonics#Resources for phonics instruction|here]]
=====Related areas=====
======Phonemic awareness======
[[Phonemic awareness]] is the process by which the [[phonemes]] (sounds of oral language) are heard, interpreted, understood and manipulated; unrelated to their [[grapheme]] (written language). [[Phonological awareness]], which includes the manipulation of [[rhymes]], [[syllable]]s, and [[syllable onset|onsets]] and [[syllable rime|rimes]], is most prevalent in alphabetic systems.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ehri|first=Linnea|author2=Simone Nunes |author3=Dale Willows |author4=Barbara Valeska Schuster |author5=Zohreh Yaghoub-Zadeh |author6-link=Timothy Shanahan (educator)|author6= Timothy Shanahan (educator |title=Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel's meta-analysis|journal=Reading Research Quarterly|date=July–September 2001|volume=36|issue=3|pages=250–287 |jstor=748111|doi=10.1598/RRQ.36.3.2}}</ref> The specific part of speech depends on the [[writing system]] employed. The NRP concluded that phonemic awareness improves a learner's ability to learn to read. When teaching phonemic awareness, the NRP found that better results were obtained with focused and explicit instruction of one or two elements, over five or more hours, in small groups, and using the corresponding [[graphemes]] (letters).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=National Reading Panel, 2000, NICHD, p. 2-4}}</ref> See also '''[[speech perception]]'''. As mentioned earlier, the most effective way of teaching phonemic awareness is through segmenting and blending, a key part of synthetic phonics.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED489535.pdf|title=THE NATIONAL READING PANEL REPORT: Practical Advice for Teachers, page 9, Timothy Shanahan, University of Illinois at Chicago, Learning Point Associates 2005.}}</ref>
======Vocabulary======
A critical aspect of reading comprehension is vocabulary development.<ref name="Justice 2002 87–106"/> When a reader encounters an unfamiliar word in print and decodes it to derive its spoken pronunciation, the reader understands the word if it is in the reader's spoken vocabulary. Otherwise, the reader must derive the meaning of the word using another strategy, such as context. If the development of the child's vocabulary is impeded by things such as ear infections, that inhibit the child from hearing new words consistently, then the development of reading will also be impaired.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Wolf, Maryanne |author2=Stoodley, Catherine J. |title=Proust and the squid: the story and science of the reading brain |publisher=Harper |___location=New York |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/104 104–105] |isbn=978-0-06-018639-5 |oclc=471015779 |url=https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/104 }}</ref>
======Sight vocabulary vs. Sight words======
'''[[Sight word]]s''' (i.e. high-frequency or common words), sometimes called the "look-say" method or whole-word method, are ''not'' a part of the phonics method. They are usually associated with [[whole language]] and [[balanced literacy]] where students are expected to memorize common words such as those on the [[Dolch word list]] and the Fry word list (e.g. a, be, call, do, eat, fall, gave, etc.).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uen.org/k-2educator/word_lists.shtml|title=Fry Instant Words, UTAH EDUCATION NETWORK}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/mcgraw-hill-education-acknowledges-enduring-contributions-of-reading-and-language-arts-scholar-author-and-innovator-ed-fry-102954189.html|title=McGraw-Hill Education Acknowledges Enduring Contributions of Reading and Language Arts Scholar, Author and Innovator Ed Fry, McGraw-Hill Education, Sep 15, 2010}}</ref> The supposition (in whole language and balanced literacy) is that students will learn to read more easily if they memorize the most common words they will encounter, especially words that are not easily decoded (i.e. exceptions).
On the other hand using sight words as a method of teaching reading in English is seen as being at odds with the [[alphabetic principle]] and treating English as though it was a [[logographic]] language (e.g. [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Japanese language|Japanese]]).<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Underground History of American Education |last=Gatto |first=John Taylor |publisher=The Oxford Village Press |year=2006 |isbn=0945700040 |___location=Oxford, NY |pages=70–72 |chapter=Eyless in Gaza}}</ref>
In addition, according to research, whole-word memorisation is "labor-intensive", requiring on average about 35 trials per word.<ref name="Bruce Murray 2019">{{cite journal|last1=Murray|first1=Bruce|last2=McIlwain|first2=Jane|title=How do beginners learn to read irregular words as sight words|journal=Journal of Research in Reading|volume=42|issue=1|year=2019|pages=123–136|issn=0141-0423
|doi=10.1111/1467-9817.12250}}</ref> Also, phonics advocates say that most words are decodable, so comparatively few words have to be memorized. And because a child will over time encounter many low-frequency words, "the phonological recoding mechanism is a very powerful, indeed essential, mechanism throughout reading development".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/pspi/pdf/pspi22.pdf|title=HOW PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE INFORMS THE TEACHING OF READING, VOL. 2, NO. 2, NOVEMBER 2001, page 40.}}</ref> Furthermore, researchers suggest that teachers who withhold phonics instruction to make it easier on children “are having the opposite effect” by making it harder for children to gain basic word-recognition skills. They suggest that learners should focus on understanding the principles of phonics so they can recognize the phonemic overlaps among words (e.g. have, had, has, having, haven't, etc.), making it easier to decode them all.<ref>{{cite book |author=Seidenberg, Mark |title=Language at the speed of sight, pg. 147|publisher=Basic Books|___location=New York, NY|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5416-1715-5}}</ref>
'''Sight vocabulary''' is a part of the phonics method. It describes words that are stored in long-term memory and read automatically. Skilled fully-alphabetic readers learn to store words in long-term memory without memorization (i.e. a mental dictionary), making reading and comprehension easier. The process, called ''[[Orthography|orthographic]] mapping'', involves ''decoding, crosschecking, mental marking and rereading''. It takes significantly less time than memorization. This process works for fully-alphabetic readers when reading simple decodable words from left to right through the word. ''Irregular words'' pose more of a challenge, yet research in 2018 concluded that "fully-alphabetic students" learn irregular words more easily when they use a process called ''hierarchical decoding''. In this process, students, rather than decode from left to right, are taught to focus attention on the irregular elements such as a vowel-digraph and a silent-e; for example, ''break (b - r - '''ea - '''k), height (h - '''eigh''' - t), touch (t - '''ou - ch'''), and make (m - '''a'''- k'''e''')''. Consequentially, they suggest that teachers and tutors should focus on "teaching decoding with more advanced vowel patterns before expecting young readers to tackle irregular words".<ref name="Bruce Murray 2019"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/research-by-topic/orthographic-mapping-acquisition-sight-word-reading-spelling-memory-and-vocabulary|title=Orthographic mapping, Reading rockets}}</ref>
======Fluency======
[[Fluency]] is ability to read orally with speed, accuracy, and [[vocal]] expression. The ability to read fluently is one of several critical factors necessary for reading comprehension. If a reader is not fluent, it may be difficult to remember what has been read and to relate the ideas expressed in the text to their background knowledge. This accuracy and [[automaticity]] of reading serves as a bridge between decoding and comprehension.<ref name="Rasinski, T"/>
======Reading comprehension======
The NRP describes reading comprehension as a complex [[cognitive]] process in which a reader intentionally and interactively engages with the text. The [[#Science of reading|science of reading]] says that reading comprehension is heavily dependent on word recognition (i.e., phonological awareness, decoding, etc.) and oral language comprehension (i.e., background knowledge, vocabulary, etc.).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kendeou P, Savage R, van den Broek P |title=Revisiting the simple view of reading |journal=Br J Educ Psychol |volume=79 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=353–70 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19091164 |doi=10.1348/978185408X369020 }}</ref>
====Whole language====
{{Main|Whole language}}
[[Whole language]] has the reputation of being a meaning-based method of teaching reading that emphasizes literature and text comprehension. It discourages any significant use of phonics, if at all.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/UnderstandingReading-FrankSmith/frank-smith-reading_djvu.txt|title=Frank Smith, 2004, Understanding Reading}}</ref> Instead, it trains students to focus on words, sentences and paragraphs as a whole rather than letters and sounds. Students are taught to use context and pictures to "guess" words they do not recognize, or even just skip them and read on. It aims to make reading fun, yet many students struggle to figure out the specific rules of the language on their own, which causes the student's decoding and spelling to suffer.
The following are some features of the whole language philosophy:
*Children are expected to learn to read and write as they learned to talk, that is gradually, without a great deal of direct instruction. (However, researchers and neuroscientists say that reading, unlike talking, is not a natural process and many learners require explicit instruction. They point out that millions of adults can speak their language just fine, yet they cannot read their language.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/how-do-kids-learn-to-read.html|title=How Do Kids Learn to Read? What the Science Says, Edweek, 2019-10-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Gough, Philip B., and Michael L. Hillinger. "Learning to Read: an Unnatural Act." Bulletin of the Orton Society, vol. 30, 1980, pp. 179–196. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23769975. Accessed 1 June 2020.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/pspi/pdf/pspi22.pdf|title=HOW PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE INFORMS THE TEACHING OF READING, pg 57, American Psychological Society, 2001}}</ref>
*Learning is emphasized more than teaching. It is assumed that the students will learn to read and write, and the teacher facilitates that growth.
*Students read and write every day in a variety of situations.
*Reading, writing, and spoken language are not considered separate components of the curriculum or merely ends in themselves; rather they permeate everything the students are doing.
*There is no division between first ''learning to read'' and later ''reading to learn''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Understanding Whole Language: From Principles to Practice|author=Weaver, Constance|date=1990|publisher=Heinemann Educational Books, Inc., 361 Hanover St., Portsmouth, NH 03801-3959|isbn=0-435-08535-2}}</ref><ref name="Stanovich">{{cite journal|last1=Stanovich|first1=Keith|date=1994|title=Romance and reality|journal=The Reading Teacher|volume=47|pages=280–291}}</ref>
As of 2020, [[whole language]] is widely used in the U.S.A. and Canada, however, in some US States and many other [[Phonics#Practices by country or region|countries]], such as Australia and the United Kingdom, it has lost favor or been abandoned because it is not supported by evidence. <ref name="Seidenberg">{{cite journal |last1=Seidenberg |first1=Mark |title=The Science of Reading and Its Educational Implications |journal=Language Learning and Development |date=2013 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=331–360 |pmc=4020782 |pmid=24839408 |doi=10.1080/15475441.2013.812017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://educhatter.wordpress.com/category/early-reading-instruction/|title=Blog, Early reading instruction, Paul W. Bennett, 2013-01-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/RF/introduction/|title= Common Core, English Language Arts Standards, Reading – Foundational Skills, K-5,USA}}</ref> Some notable researchers have clearly stated their disapproval of ''whole language'' and whole-word teaching. In his 2009 book, ''Reading in the brain'', cognitive neuroscientist, [[Stanislas Dehaene]], said "cognitive psychology directly refutes any notion of teaching via a 'global' or 'whole language' method." He goes on to talk about "the myth of whole-word reading", saying it has been refuted by recent experiments. "We do not recognize a printed word through a holistic grasping of its contours, because our brain breaks it down into letters and graphemes."<ref>{{cite book|author=Stanislas Dehaene|title=Reading in the brain|pages=222–228|publisher=Penquin Books|date=2010-10-26|isbn=9780143118053}}</ref> In addition, cognitive neuroscientist [[Mark Seidenberg]], in his 2017 book ''Language at the speed of light'', refers to whole language as a "theoretical zombie" because it persists in spite of a lack of supporting evidence.<ref> {{cite book |title ="The persistence of the [whole language] ideas despite the mass of evidence against them is most striking at this point. In normal science, a theory whose assumptions and predictions have been repeatedly contradicted by data will be discarded. That is what happened to the Smith and Goodman theories within reading science, but in education they are theoretical zombies that cannot be stopped by conventional weapons such as empirical disconfirmation, leaving them free to roam the educational landscape." Language at the speed of light|date=2017|page=271=author=Mark Seidenberg|isbn=9780465080656|last1=Seidenberg|first1=Mark}}</ref><ref> {{Cite web | url=https://seidenbergreading.net|title= Reading Matters: Connecting science and education}} </ref><ref name="Seidenberg">{{cite journal |last1=Seidenberg |first1=Mark |title=The Science of Reading and Its Educational Implications |journal=Language Learning and Development |date=2013 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=331–360 |pmc=4020782 |pmid=24839408 |doi=10.1080/15475441.2013.812017 }}</ref>
====Balanced literacy====
{{Main|Balanced literacy}}
[[Balanced literacy]] is not well defined, however it is intended as a method that combines elements of both phonics and whole language. According to a survey in 2010, 68% of elementary school teachers in the USA profess to use balanced literacy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.edweek.org/media/ed%20week%20reading%20instruction%20survey%20report-final%201.24.20.pdf|title=Early reading instruction survey, EdWeek Research Center, USA|date=2010}}</ref> Furthermore, only 52% of teachers in the USA include ''phonics'' in their definition of ''balanced literacy''.
However, balanced literacy has received criticism from researchers and others suggesting that, in many instances, it is merely ''whole language'' by another name. <ref> Whole Language Lives On: The Illusion of "Balanced" Reading Instruction, 2008, Forward, Louisa Cook Moats, {{ISBN|978-1-4379-0236-5}} </ref><ref> {{cite web|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/balanced-literacy-phonics-teaching-reading-evidence|title=It's time to stop debating how to teach kids to read and follow the evidence, Emily Sohn, Science news, 2020-04-26.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/unbalanced-comments-on-balanced-literacy|title=Unbalanced Comments on Balanced Literacy, Timothy Shanahan, 2014-10-31}}</ref><ref> The Death and Life of the Great American School System, 2016, page 39, Diane Ravitch, {{ISBN|978-0-465-09799-9}} </ref>
According to phonics advocate and cognitive neuroscientist [[Mark Seidenberg]], balanced literacy allows educators to diffuse the [[Phonics#The Reading Wars - Phonics vs. Whole language|reading wars]] while not making specific recommendations for change. He goes on to say that, in his opinion, the high number of struggling readers in the USA is the result of the manner in which teachers are taught to teach reading.<ref name="Seidenberg, Mark 2017">{{cite book |author=Seidenberg, Mark |title=Language at the speed of sight|publisher=Basic Books|___location=New York, NY|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5416-1715-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/international-results/pirls/student-achievement/pirls-achievement-results/|title=2016 PIRLS grade 4 international reading results}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationsreportcard.gov|title=NAEP Nations report card, USA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/PISA%202018%20Insights%20and%20Interpretations%20FINAL%20PDF.pdf|title=PISA 2018 Age 15 International scores in reading, math and science}}</ref> He also says that struggling readers should not be encouraged to skip a challenging word, nor rely on pictures or semantic and syntactic cues to "guess at" a challenging word. Instead, they should use [[Evidence-based education|evidence-based]] decoding methods such as [[Phonics#Systematic phonics|systematic phonics]]. <ref>{{cite book |author=Seidenberg, Mark |title=Language at the speed of sight, pages 267 & 300-304|publisher=Basic Books|___location=New York, NY|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5416-1715-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/blogs/shanahan-literacy/it-good-idea-teach-three-cueing-systems-reading|title=Is it a Good Idea to Teach the Three Cueing Systems in Reading?, Timothy Shanahan, Reading Rockets, 2019-04-01}}</ref><ref> {{cite web|url=https://www.nifdi.org/news-latest-2/blog-hempenstall/402-the-three-cueing-system-in-reading-will-it-ever-go-away|title=The three-cueing system in reading: Will it ever go away, National Institute for Direct Instruction }}</ref>
====The three-cueing system (The searchlights model)====
The three-cueing system (the searchlights model in England) is a theory that has been circulating since the 1980s but its roots are in the theories proposed in 1960s by [[Ken Goodman]] and [[Marie Clay]] that eventually became [[whole language]], [[reading recovery]] and guided reading.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.apmreports.org/episode/2019/08/22/whats-wrong-how-schools-teach-reading|title=How a flawed idea is teaching millions of kids to be poor readers|author=Emily Hanford|journal=APM Reports|date=2019-08-22}}</ref> As of 2010, 75% of teachers in the USA teach the three-cueing system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.edweek.org/media/ed%20week%20reading%20instruction%20survey%20report-final%201.24.20.pdf|title=Early reading instruction survey, EdWeek Research Center, USA|date=2010}}</ref> It proposes that children who are stuck on a word should use various "cues" to figure it out and determine (guess) its meaning. The "meaning cues" are semantic ("does it make sense in the context?"), syntactic (is it a noun, verb, etc.?) and graphophonic (what are the letter-sound relationships?). It is also known as MSV ('''M'''eaning, '''S'''entence structure and '''V'''isual information such as the letters in the words).
While a cueing system does help students to "make better guesses", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. Consequently, researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists [[Mark Seidenberg]] and professor [[Timothy Shanahan (educator)|Timothy Shanahan]] do not support the theory. They say the three-cueing system's value in reading instruction "is a magnificent work of the imagination", and it developed not because teachers lack integrity, commitment, motivation, sincerity, or intelligence, but because they "were poorly trained and advised" about the [[Learning to read#science of reading|science of reading]]. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/blogs/shanahan-literacy/it-good-idea-teach-three-cueing-systems-reading|title=Is It a Good Idea to Teach the Three Cueing Systems in Reading|date=2019-04-01|author=Timothy Shanahan, Reading Rockets}}</ref><ref> {{cite book |title=Language at the speed of light|date=2017|pages=300–304|author=Mark Seidenberg|isbn=9780465080656}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nifdi.org/resources/hempenstall-blog/402-the-three-cueing-system-in-reading-will-it-ever-go-away|title=The three-cueing system in reading: Will it ever go away|author=Dr Kerry Hempenstall, Senior Industry Fellow, School of Education, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia|date=2017-10-29}}</ref> In England, the [[simple view of reading]] and [[synthetic phonics]] are intended to replace "the searchlights multi-cueing model".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/pdfs/2006-primary-national-strategy.pdf|page=18|title=Primary Framework for literacy and mathematics, Department for education and skills, England|year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100512233640/http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-05-12|title=Independent review of the teaching of early reading, 2006|access-date=2020-05-22}}</ref> On the other hand, some researchers suggest that "context" can be useful, not to guess a word, but to confirm a word after it has been phonetically decoded.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.literacyworldwide.org/get-resources/making-sense-of-the-science-of-reading|title=Science of reading, ILA, September 2020}}</ref>
====Guided reading, shared reading and leveled reading====
[[Guided reading]] is small group reading instruction that is intended to allow for the differences in students' reading abilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://teacher.scholastic.com/products/guidedreading/pdfs/GR_Research_Paper_2010.pdf|title=guidedreading/pdResearch Paper 2010.pdf|authors=Pinnell, Gay Su; Fountas, Irene C.|publisher=scholastic.com|date=2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021100818/http://teacher.scholastic.com/products/guidedreading/pdfs/GR_Research_Paper_2010.pdf|archive-date=2012-10-21}}</ref> While they are reading, students are encouraged to use strategies from the three-cueing system, the searchlights model, or MSV.
It is no longer supported by the [[Primary National Strategy]] in England as [[Synthetic phonics]] is the officially recognized method for teaching reading.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-curriculum|title=National curriculum, UK Government}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/pdfs/2006-primary-national-strategy.pdf|title=Primary national strategy, UK|date=2006}}</ref>
In the United States, Guided Reading is part of the Reading Workshop model of reading instruction.
'''Shared reading''' is an activity whereby the teacher and students read from a shared text that is determined to be at their reading level.
'''Leveled reading''' involves students reading from "leveled books" at an appropriate reading level. A student that struggles with a word is encouraged to use a cueing system (e.g. three-cueing, searchlights model or MSV) to guess its meaning. There are many systems that purport to gauge the students' reading levels using scales incorporating numbers, letters, colors and lexile readability scores.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://school.nelson.com/content/levelling-chart.pdf|title=Levelling Systems Comparison Chart|publisher=Nelson education}}</ref>
=== Logographic languages ===
Languages such as [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and Japanese are normally written (fully or partly) in [[logograms]] ([[hanzi]] and [[kanji]], respectively), which represent a whole word or [[morpheme]] with a single character. There are a large number of characters, and the sound that each makes must be learned directly or from other characters which contain "hints" in them. For example, in Japanese, the [[On reading#On.27yomi .28Chinese reading.29|On-reading]] of the kanji 民 is ''min'' and the related kanji 眠 shares the same On-reading, ''min'': the right-hand part shows the character's pronunciation. However this is not true for all characters. [[Kun reading]]s, on the other hand, have to be learned and memorized as there is no way to tell from each character.
[[Ruby character]]s are used in textbooks to help children learn the sounds that each logogram makes. These are written in a smaller size, using an alphabetic or [[Syllabary|syllabic]] script. For example, [[hiragana]] is typically used in Japanese, and the [[pinyin]] [[romanization]] into Latin alphabet characters is used in Chinese.
{|
|
{|
|-
| style="line-height:1em; font-size:2em" | {{lang|ja|漢}}
| style="line-height:1em; font-size:0.8em" | {{lang|ja|か<br>ん}}
|-
| style="line-height:1em; font-size:2em" | {{lang|ja|字}}
| style="line-height:1em; font-size:0.8em" | {{lang|ja|じ}}
|}
| style="padding:0 1.5em" | or ||
{|
| style="line-height:1em; font-size:0.8em; text-align:center" | {{lang|ja|かん}}
| style="line-height:1em; font-size:0.8em; text-align:center" | {{lang|ja|じ}}
|-
| style="line-height:1em; font-size:2em" | {{lang|ja|漢}}
| style="line-height:1em; font-size:2em" | {{lang|ja|字}}
|}
|}
The examples above each spell the word ''kanji'', which is made up of two kanji characters: 漢 (''kan'', written in hiragana as かん), and 字 (''ji'', written in hiragana as じ).
Textbooks are sometimes edited as a cohesive set across grades so that children will not encounter characters they are not yet expected to have learned.
==Requirements for proficient reading==
According to the report by the US [[National Reading Panel]] (NRP) in 2000,
<ref>name="National Reading Panel, 2000, Summary">{{cite web |url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=National Reading Panel (NRP) – Summary Report (2000)}}</ref><ref name="National Reading Panel, 2000, Subgroups">{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org/publications/subgroups.htm |title=National Reading Panel (NRP) – Reports of the Subgroups |work=National Reading Panel, 2000 (NRP) – Publications and Materials |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611011153/http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org/publications/subgroups.htm |archive-date=2010-06-11 }}</ref> the elements required for proficient reading of [[alphabet]]ic languages are [[phonemic awareness]], [[phonics]], [[fluency]],<ref name="Rasinski, T">{{cite web |url=http://www.prel.org/products/re_/assessing-fluency.htm |title=Assessing Reading Fluency |author=Rasinski, T. |publisher=Pacific Resources for Education and Learning |access-date=2007-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050123144839/http://www.prel.org/products/re_/assessing-fluency.htm |archive-date=2005-01-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[vocabulary]],<ref name="Justice 2002 87–106">{{cite journal|last1=Justice|first1=Laura M. |title=Word Exposure Conditions and Preschoolers' Novel Word Learning During Shared Storybook Reading|journal=Reading Psychology|volume=23|issue=2|year=2002|pages=87–106|issn=0270-2711|doi=10.1080/027027102760351016|s2cid=144874700 }}</ref> and [[reading comprehension|text comprehension]]. In non-latin languages, proficient reading does not necessarily require [[phonemic awareness]] , but rather an awareness of the individual parts of speech, which may also include the whole word (as in Chinese characters) or syllables (as in Japanese) as well as others depending on the writing system being employed.
The [[Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006)|Rose Report]], from the [[Department for Education]] in England makes it clear that, in their view, [[phonics#Systematic phonics|systematic phonics]], specifically [[synthetic phonics]], is the best way to ensure that children learn to read; such that it is now the law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|archive-url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100512233640/http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-05-12|title=Independent review of the teaching of early reading, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-english-programmes-of-study/national-curriculum-in-england-english-programmes-of-study|title= National curriculum in England: English programmes of study}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/379489/Getting_20them_20reading_20early.doc|title=Getting them Reading Early, OFSTED, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5wGfNiweEkI|title=Synthetic Phonics, Mr. T's phonics, 2010}}</ref> In 2005 the government of [[Australia]] published a report stating "The evidence is clear ... that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dest.gov.au/nitl/documents/executive_summary.pdf |title=Executive Summary |work=Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422080804/http://www.dest.gov.au/nitl/documents/executive_summary.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-22 }}</ref> Phonics has been gaining acceptance in many other countries as can be seen from this page [[Phonics#Practices by country or region|Practices by country or region]].
Other important elements are: [[rapid automatized naming]] (RAN),<ref name="Lervåg">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lervåg A, Hulme C | year = 2009 | title = Rapid automatized naming (RAN) taps a mechanism that places constraints on the development of early reading fluency | journal = Psychol. Sci. | volume = 20 | issue = 8| pages = 1040–8 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02405.x | pmid = 19619178 | s2cid = 44971393 }}</ref><ref name="Denckla MB 1974">{{cite journal | pmid = 4844470 | volume=10 | issue=2 | title=Rapid "automatized" naming of pictured objects, colors, letters and numbers by normal children |date=June 1974 | journal=Cortex | pages=186–202 |vauthors=Denckla MB, Rudel R | doi=10.1016/s0010-9452(74)80009-2}}</ref> a general understanding of the [[orthography]] of the language, and practice.
'''Rapid automatized naming'''
[[Rapid automatized naming]], the ability to say quickly the names of letters, objects and colors, predicts an individual's ability to read. This might be linked to the importance of quick retrieval of [[phonological]] representations from [[long-term memory]] in reading and the importance of object-naming circuits in the left [[cerebral hemisphere]] that are recruited to underpin a learner's word-recognition abilities.<ref name="Lervåg"/><ref name="Denckla MB 1974"/>
'''Orthography'''
[[Orthography]] describes or defines the set of symbols used in a language, and the rules about how to write these symbols (i.e., the conventional spelling system of a language). Orthographic Development proceeds in increasing complexity as a person learns to read. Some of the first things to be learnt are the orthographic conventions such as the direction of reading and that there are differing typefaces and capitalization for each symbol. In general, this means that to read proficiently, the reader has to understand elements of a written language. In the USA, a limited amount of spelling is taught up to grade four, and beyond that "we gain orthographic expertise by reading"; so the amount and variety of texts that children read is important.<ref> {{cite book |title =Language at the speed of light, 2017, page 92, Mark Seidenberg}}</ref>
'''Practice'''
Repeated exposure to print improves many aspects of learning to read and most importantly the knowledge of individual words. It increases the speed at which high frequency words are recognized which allows for increased [[fluency]] in reading. It also supports orthographic development, [[reading comprehension]] and [[vocabulary]] development. Research suggests there is value in reading words both in isolation and in context. Reading words in isolation promotes faster reading times and better memory for spellings; whereas, reading words in context improves semantic knowledge and comprehension.<ref> {{cite document|url=https://ila.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/rrq.334|title=The Science of Learning to Read Words: A Case for Systematic Phonics Instruction, Linnea C. Ehri, 2020-08-30, doi.org/10.1002/rrq.334|doi=10.1002/rrq.334}}</ref>
==Reading difficulties==
Difficulties in reading typically involve difficulty with one or more of the following: decoding, reading rate, reading fluency, or reading comprehension.
===Decoding===
{{Main|Dyslexia}}
Difficulty with decoding is marked by having not acquired the [[phoneme]]-[[grapheme]] mapping concept. One specific disability characterized by poor decoding is [[dyslexia]], defined as brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read.<ref name="nih">{{cite web|title=NINDS Dyslexia Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm|publisher=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]]|access-date=November 12, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727234247/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm|archive-date=July 27, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower than expected despite having normal intelligence. It can also be inherited in some families, and recent studies have identified a number of genes that may predispose an individual to developing dyslexia. Although the symptoms vary from person to person, common characteristics among people with dyslexia are difficulty with spelling, phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), and/or rapid visual-verbal responding.<ref name="nih"/> Adults can have either developmental dyslexia<ref name='Heim'>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Heim S, Tschierse J, Amunts K |title=Cognitive subtypes of dyslexia |journal=Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=73–82 |year=2008 |pmid=18389017 |url=http://www.ane.pl/linkout.php?pii=6809 |issn=0065-1400}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Facoetti A |title=Auditory and visual automatic attention deficits in developmental dyslexia |journal=Brain Res Cogn Brain Res |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |date=April 2003 |pmid=12668226 |doi=10.1016/S0926-6410(02)00270-7 |name-list-style=vanc|author2=Lorusso ML |author3=Paganoni P |display-authors=3 |last4=Cattaneo |first4=Carmen |last5=Galli |first5=Raffaella |last6=Umiltà |first6=Carlo |last7=Mascetti |first7=Gian Gastone}}</ref><ref name=anchoring>{{Cite journal |author=Ahissar M |title=Dyslexia and the anchoring-deficit hypothesis |journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.) |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=458–65 |date=November 2007 |pmid= 17983834 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2007.08.015 |s2cid=11682478 }}</ref><ref name="Chung KK">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Chung KK, Ho CS, Chan DW, Tsang SM, Lee SH |title=Cognitive profiles of Chinese adolescents with dyslexia |journal=Dyslexia |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=2–23 |date=February 2010 |pmid=19544588 |doi=10.1002/dys.392 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122462213/abstract|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305112702/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122462213/abstract|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-03-05}}</ref> or [[Alexia (condition)|acquired dyslexia]] which occurs after a [[brain injury]], [[stroke]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cherney LR |title=Aphasia, alexia, and oral reading |journal=Top Stroke Rehabil |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=22–36 |year=2004 |pmid=14872397 |doi= 10.1310/VUPX-WDX7-J1EU-00TB}} *{{cite journal |author=Temple CM |title=Developmental and acquired dyslexias |journal=Cortex |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=898–910 |date=August 2006 |pmid=17131596 |doi=10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70434-9 |s2cid=4490916 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sinanović O, Mrkonjić Z, Zukić S, Vidović M, Imamović K |title=Post-stroke language disorders |journal=Acta Clin Croat |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=79–94 |date=March 2011 |pmid=22034787 }}</ref> or [[dementia]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Snowden JS, Kindell J, Thompson JC, Richardson AM, Neary D |title=Progressive aphasia presenting with deep dyslexia and dysgraphia |journal=Cortex |volume= 48|issue= 9|pages= 1234–9|date=March 2012 |pmid=22465163 |doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.02.010 |s2cid=8401240 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hurley RS, Paller KA, Rogalski EJ, Mesulam MM |title=Neural mechanisms of object naming and word comprehension in primary progressive aphasia |journal=J. Neurosci. |volume=32 |issue=14 |pages=4848–55 |date=April 2012 |pmid=22492040 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5984-11.2012 |pmc=3335203}}</ref>
===Reading rate===
Individuals with reading rate difficulties tend to have accurate word recognition and normal comprehension abilities, but the reading speed is below grade level.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Catts, Hugh William |author2=Kamhi, Alan G. |title=The connections between language and reading disabilities |publisher=L. Erlbaum Associates |___location=Hillsdale, N.J |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8058-5001-7 |oclc=470295626 }}</ref> Strategies such as [[guided reading]] (guided, repeated oral-reading instruction), may help improve a reader's reading rate.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=National reading panel, pg. 3–3, nichd.nih.gov (USA)}}</ref>
===Reading fluency===
Individuals with reading fluency difficulties fail to maintain a fluid, smooth pace when reading. Strategies used for overcoming reading rate difficulties are also useful in addressing reading fluency issues.<ref name="National Reading Panel, 2000, Subgroups"/>
===Reading comprehension===
{{Main|Reading comprehension}}
Individuals with reading comprehension difficulties are commonly described as poor comprehenders. They have normal decoding skills as well as a fluid rate of reading, but have difficulty comprehending text when read. Increasing vocabulary knowledge, listening skills and teaching basic comprehension techniques may help facilitate better [[reading comprehension]]. The [[simple view of reading]] holds that reading comprehension requires both decoding skills and ''oral language'' comprehension ability.
==Reading achievement: national and international reports==
The following organizations measure and report on reading achievement in the United States and internationally:
===NAEP===
{{Main|NAEP}}
In the United States, the ''National Assessment of Educational Progress [[NAEP]]'' ('''The Nation's Report Card''') is the national assessment of what students know and can do in various subjects. Four of these subjects – reading, writing, mathematics and science – are assessed most frequently and reported at the state and district level, usually for grades 4 and 8.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/highlights/reading/2019/|title=Nations report card}}</ref>
In 2019, with respect to the reading skills of the nation's '''grade-four''' public school students, '''34%''' performed at or above the NAEP ''Proficient level'' (solid academic performance) and '''65%''' performed at or above the NAEP ''Basic level'' (partial mastery of the proficient level skills). The results by race / ethnicity were as follows:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/subject/publications/stt2019/pdf/2020014NP4.pdf|title=NAEP 2019 grade 4 reading report}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! class="unsortable" |Race / Ethnicity
! class="unsortable" |Proficient level
! class="unsortable" |Basic level
|-
|Asian
|57%
|82%
|-
|White
|44%
|76%
|-
|Two or more races
|40%
|72%
|-
|'''National Average'''
|'''34%'''
|'''65%'''
|-
|Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
|24%
|55%
|-
|Hispanic
|23%
|54
|-
|American Indian/Alaska Native
|20%
|50%
|-
|Black
|18%
|47
|-
|}
NAEP reading assessment results are reported as average scores on a 0–500 scale.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/guides/scores_achv.aspx|title=NAEP scores}}</ref> The Basic Level is 208 and the Proficient Level is 238.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/reading/achieve.aspx|title=The NAEP Reading Achievement Levels by Grade}}</ref> The average reading score for grade-four public school students was 219.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=147|title=NAEP Fast Facts, Institute of Education Sciences}}</ref> Female students had an average score that was 7 points higher than male students. Students who were eligible for the [[National School Lunch Act|National School Lunch Program (NSLP)]] had an average score that was 28 points lower than that for students who were not eligible.
Reading scores for the individual States and Districts are available on the NAEP site.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/highlights/reading/2019/|title=NAEP NATIONAL AND STATE AVERAGE SCORES}}</ref> Between 2017 and 2019 [[Mississippi]] was the only State that had a grade-four reading score increase and 17 States had a score decrease.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading/states/scores/?grade=4|title=NAEP 2019 State Average Scores}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/05/opinion/mississippi-schools-naep.html|title=Opinion, Mississippi schools, NT Times, 2019-12-05}}</ref>
===PIAAC===
{{Main|PIAAC}}
The ''Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies [[PIAAC]]'' is an international study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ([[OECD]]) of cognitive and workplace skills in 39 countries between 2011–2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/|title=PIAAC-OECD}}</ref> The Survey measures adults’ proficiency in key information-processing skills – literacy, numeracy and problem solving. The focus is on the working-age population between the '''ages of 16 and 65'''. For example, the study shows the ranking of 38 countries as to the ''literacy proficiency among adults''. According to the 2019 OECD report, the five countries with the highest ranking are Japan, Finland, the Netherlands, Sweden and Australia; whereas Canada is 12th, England (UK) is 16th, and the USA is 19th.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publications/Skills_Matter_Additonal_Results_from_the_Survey_of_Adult_Skills_ENG.pdf|title=OECD (2019), Skills Matter: Additional Results from the Survey of Adult Skills, OECD Skills Studies, doi.org/10.1787/1f029d8f-en, page 44}}</ref> It is also worth noting that the PIAAC table A2.1 (2013) shows the percentage of adults reading ''at-or-below level one'' (out of five levels). Some examples are Japan 4.9%, Finland 10.6%, Netherlands 11.7%, Sweden 13.3%, Australia 12.6%, Canada 16.4%, England (UK) 16.4%, and the USA 16.9%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/Skills%20volume%201%20(eng)--full%20v12--eBook%20(04%2011%202013).pdf|title=OECD Skills Outlook 2013, page 257}}</ref>
===PIRLS===
{{Main|PIRLS}}
The ''Progress in International Reading Literacy Study [[PIRLS]]'' is an international study of reading (comprehension) achievement in '''fourth graders'''.<ref> {{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pirls/|title=PIRLS}}</ref> It is designed to measure children's reading literacy achievement, to provide a baseline for future studies of trends in achievement, and to gather information about children's home and school experiences in learning to read. The 2016 PIRLS report shows the 4th grade reading achievement by country in two categories (literary and informational). The ten countries with the highest overall reading average are the Russian Federation, Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Ireland, Finland, Poland, Northern Ireland, Norway, Chinese Taipei and England (UK). Some others are: the United States 15th, Australia 21st, Canada 23rd, and New Zealand 33rd.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/international-results/wp-content/uploads/structure/PIRLS/3.-achievement-in-purposes-and-comprehension-processes/3_1_achievement-in-reading-purposes.pdf|title=PIRLS 2016 Exhibit 3.1: Achievement in Reading Purposes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/1147045/singapores-fourth-graders-read-at-the-most-advanced-level-in-a-global-test-of-literacy/|title=Where the world's fourth-graders read at the most advanced level, Barclays, 2017-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/664562/PIRLS_2016_National_Report_for_England-_BRANDED.pdf|title=Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS): National Report for England, 2017-12-12}}</ref>
===PISA===
{{Main|PISA}}
The ''Programme for International Student Assessment [[PISA]]'' measures '''15-year-old school pupils'''' scholastic performance on mathematics, science, and reading. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa/|title=About PISA|website=OECD PISA|access-date=8 February 2018}}</ref> In 2018, of the 79 participating countries/economies, on average, students in Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang (China) and Singapore outperformed students from all other countries in reading, mathematics and science. 21 countries have reading scores above the OECD average scores and many of the scores are not statistically different.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/5f07c754-en.pdf?expires=1604179785&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=C469B86D35547547F681F9952DA612B3|title=PISA 2018 Results}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/5f07c754-en.pdf?expires=1604228204&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=136D4B897D4705F5991F0CB667578185|title=PDF, PISA 2018 results, pages 56–58}}</ref>
==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Analytical phonics]]
* [[Balanced literacy]]
* [[Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud]]
* [[Language]]
* [[Phonics]]
* [[Reading comprehension]]
* [[Reading education in the United States]]
* [[Reading disability]]
* [[Reading for special needs]]
* [[Reading (process)]]
* [[Spelling]]
* [[Synthetic phonics]]
* [[Vocabulary]]
* [[Vocabulary development]]
* [[Whole language]]
}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{Sister project links|Reading}}
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