Storia dei responsa nell'ebraismo e Utente:Teseo/Sandbox1: differenze tra le pagine

Versione delle 10:50, 12 lug 2013

Versione delle 10:11, 25 lug 2019

Riga 1:

{{Bio

{{Avvisounicode}}

|Nome = Antonio

{{T|lingua=inglese|argomento=ebraismo|data=luglio 2013}}

|Cognome = Picolomini d'Aragona

{{WIP|Monozigote|ampliamento del testo – 12 luglio 2013}}

|Sesso = M

|LuogoNascita =

[[File:Esh.jpg|thumb|Responsa ''Maharam Esh'', [[Ungvár]] [[1864]]]]

|GiornoMeseNascita =

La '''storia dei [[responsa]] nell'[[Ebraismo]]''' copre un periodo di 1700 anni. I responsa [[letteratura rabbinica|rabbinici]]<ref>'''Responsa''' ([[lingua latina|Latino]]: plurale di '''''responsum''''', "risposte") comprendono un ''corpus'' di decisioni scritte e direttive date da studiosi [[giuristi]] (in [[ebraico]]: ''[[posek]]'') in risposta a domande poste loro su questioni interpretative della ''[[Halakhah]]'' ed [[esegesi ebraica|esegetiche]] del [[Tanakh]] ([[Bibbia ebraica]]), che possono riferirsi anche semplicemente a istruzioni sul comportamento della persona ebrea nella propria vita quotidiana di osservanza alle [[mitzvot]].</ref> costituiscono una categoria speciale di [[letteratura rabbinica]], differendo in ''forma'', ma non necessariamente nei contenuti, dai commentari rabbinici dedicati all'[[esegesi ebraica|esegesi]] della [[Tanakh|Bibbia ebraica]], della [[Mishnah]], del [[Talmud]] e della ''[[Halakha]]'' (i codici della legge religiosa ebraica).<ref>Cfr. W. O. E. Oesterley & G.H. Box, ''A Short Survey of the Literature of Rabbinical and Mediæval Judaism'', Burt Franklin: New York, 1920.</ref><ref name="Jewish"/>I codici stessi contengono le regole dei quotidiani ''incidenti'' della vita. La letteratura dei responsa copre tutte quelle occasioni/materie dove una normativa risulta necessaria per attenersi alle [[mitzvot]] di condotta ebraica.<ref name="Jewish">{{JewishEncyclopedia}} - cfr. rispettivo articolo, come da Bibliografia.</ref> Il modo, lo stile e la materia stessa sono cambiate in funzione dei viaggi [[diaspora ebraica|diasporici]] del [[popolo ebraico]] e dello sviluppo di altra letteratura [[Halakhah|halakhica]], in particolare dei codici.

|AnnoNascita =

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==Era talmudica==

|GiornoMeseMorte =

{{Nota

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|allineamento = destra

|Attività = <!-- Campo obbligatorio, ma può essere sovrascritto, vedi istruzioni a fianco -->

|larghezza = 100px

|Nazionalità = <!-- Idem -->

|titolo = <small>Ere Rabbiniche</small>

|PostNazionalità =

|dim-testo = 90%

|contenuto = 1-[[Zugot]]<br />2-Tannaim<br />3-[[Amoraim]]<br />4-[[Savoraim]]<br />5-[[Gaon]]im<br />6-[[Rishonim]]<br />7-[[Acharonim]]

}}

{{Vedi anche|Talmud|Ermeneutica talmudica|Esegesi ebraica}}

I responsa dei primi cinque secoli non sono contenuti in opere specifiche: sono infatti sparsi nelle scritture di entrambi i [[Talmud]] (il [[Talmud babilonese]], o ''[[Bavli]]'', e il [[Talmud gerosolimitano]], o ''[[Yerushalmi]]''). Opere dedicate specialmente ai responsa appaiono per la prima volta nel periodo post-talmudico. Molti responsa sono andati perduti, ma quelli esistenti ammontano a centinaia di migliaia, in circa mille raccolte conosciute.<ref name="Jewish"/>

<imagemap>

Image:Chronology of Israel eng.png|center|780px|

default [[Storia ebraica]]

rect 658 156 833 176 [[Aliyah|Periodi di forte immigrazione nella Terra d'Israele]]

rect 564 156 647 175 [[Diaspora ebraica|Periodi quando la maggioranza degli ebrei viveva in esilio]]

rect 460 156 554 175 [[Terra d'Israele|Periodi in cui la maggioranza degli ebrei viveva in terra d'Israele, con piena o parziale indipendenza]]

rect 314 156 452 175 [[Tempio di Gerusalemme|Periodi in cui esisteva il Tempio ebraico]]

rect 196 156 309 175 [[Storia ebraica]]

rect 26 102 134 122 [[Libro dei Giudici|Shoftim]]

rect 134 102 265 121 [[Libro dei Re|Melakhim]]

rect 146 83 266 104 [[Tempio di Salomone|Primo Tempio]]

rect 286 83 418 103 [[Secondo Tempio]]

rect 341 103 392 121 [[Zugot]]

rect 393 103 453 121 [[Tannaim]]

rect 452 102 534 221 [[Amoraim]]

rect 534 102 560 121 [[Savoraim]]

rect 559 103 691 121 [[Geonim]]

rect 691 102 825 121 [[Rishonim]]

rect 825 100 940 120 [[Acharonim]]

rect 939 94 959 120 [[Aliyah|Aliyot]]

rect 957 65 975 121 [[Israele]]

rect 940 62 958 94 [[Olocaust]]

rect 825 62 941 100 [[Diaspora ebraica|Diaspora]]

rect 808 61 825 101 [[Decreto dell'Alhambra|Espulsione dalla Spagna]]

rect 428 62 808 103 [[Diaspora ebraica#Dalla cattivit.C3.A0_babilonese alla grande diaspora|Esilio romano]]

poly 226 82 410 82 410 92 428 92 428 61 226 62 [[Dieci tribù perdute d'Israele|Esilio assiro (Dieci tribù perdute)]]

rect 264 82 284 122 [[Esilio babilonese]]

rect 283 103 341 121 [[Secondo Tempio|Periodo del Secondo Tempio]]

poly 26 121 17 121 17 63 225 63 226 81 145 82 145 101 26 101 [[Cronologia biblica|Storia ebraica antica]]

rect 58 136 375 146 [[Cronologia biblica]]

rect 356 122 373 135 [[Era volgare]]

desc none

</imagemap><div style="color:blue;"><center>'''~{{•}}Periodi storici dell'Ebraismo{{•}}~'''<br/><small>''(cliccare sui periodi specifici)''</small>

</center></div>

=== Pre-MishnaicBiografia era ===

Non si conoscono responsa in esistenza prima della Mishnah ([[200]] [[e.v.]]): è in dubbio se ne siano stati scritti prima di questo periodo. Una tradizione sostiene che nessuna ''[[halakhah]]'' (legge) dovrebbe essere scritta (cfr. [[Torah orale]]). Anche quando la riluttanza a mettere per iscritto le sentenze halakhiche divenne obsoleta, le lettere di carattere giuridico potevano essere scritte solo nei casi in cui le leggi potevano parimenti essere ridotte a scrittura. Mentre prevaleva la regola che nessuna legge doveva essere scritta, nessuna comunicazione di contenuto legale veniva fatta per mezzo di lettere. Le questioni erano solitamente comunicate oralmente, o proposte all'accademia da un insegnante, che trasmetteva la risposta e la decisione di bocca in bocca, oralmente. La rarità delle lettere su problemi legali nell'era [[tanna]]itica (periodo coperto dalla [[Mishnah]]), può essere visto da un passaggio della [[Tosefta]] (''[[Zeraim|Terumot]]'' II. 13 [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/f/f16.htm]), in cui si afferma che [[Gamaliele|Rabbi Gamaliele]] segretamente inviò un messaggero con la risposta ad una questione, perché se desiderava mantenere il suo decisione segreta, probabilmente avrebbe inviato una lettera se tali risposte erano la consuetudine in quel tempo.<ref name="Jewish"/>

===Era mishnaicaNote ===

{{Vedi anche|Mishnah|Tannaim}}

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Nel periodo [[Tannaim|tannaitico]] (100 [[p.e.v.]] al [[200]] [[e.v.]]) le dichiarazioni, le pubblicazioni, i contributi relativi al calendario e le notifiche, erano gli unici documenti regolarmente messi per iscritto. D'altra parte, non si può positivamente affermare che nessuna sentenza giuridica o risoluzione [[esegesi ebraica|esegetica]] fosse data per iscritto prima del completamento della [[Mishnah]]: alcune eccezioni furono sicuramente fatte.<ref name="Jewish"/>

===Nel Talmud===

Subito dopo il completamento della Mishnah, quando il divieto o la riluttanza nel mettere per iscritto le ''[[Halakhah|halakhot]]'' erano in gran parte scomparsi, la letteratura dei responsa cominciò ad apparire, con tracce conservate anche nel [[Talmud]]. Spesso le questioni venivano risolte da una sola lettera, come fu successivamente il caso con i [[Geonim]], che si scambiarono una serie di responsa. Le risposte furono firmate da allievi e colleghi, in modo che, a rigore, i responsa vennero in realtà emessi da un consiglio.<ref name="Jewish"/>

Con l'inizio del terzo secolo dell'[[era volgare]], i responsa cominciano ad apparire frequentemente nelle lettere da [[Babilonia]] a [[Terra d'Israele|Israele]]. Per la fine del terzo secolo la corrispondenza tra Israele e Babilonia era diventata più attiva e i responsa da uno all'altro erano diventati molto più numerosi. Queste sentenze da parte dei rabbini in Israele sembrano essere stati considerati come autorevoli e da obbedire: per esempio, una minaccia fu fatta a Rabbi Judah ben Ezekiel, capo dell'Accademia di [[Pumbedita]], che una lettera gli sarebbe stata portata dall'"Occidente" (cioè, da Israele) per annullare una sua decisione ([[Talmud]], Trattato ''[[Bava Batra]]'' 41b [http://he.wikisource.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%91%D7%90_%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%90_%D7%9E%D7%90_%D7%91] {{he}}). In un'altra occasione, un altro insegnante protestò in simile maniera contro una decisione di Rabbi Judah e lo ammonì che egli stesso avrebbe prodotto una lettera ricevuta dall'Occidente, che lo contestava ([[Talmud]], ''[[Nezikin|Shevu'ot]]'' 48b [http://he.wikisource.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%97_%D7%91]); la stessa esperienza accadde al rabbino Mar Ukva (Talmud, ''[[Sanhedrin]]'' 29a [http://he.wikisource.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%94%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%9B%D7%98_%D7%90]).<ref name="Jewish"/>

==I ''Geonim''==

{{Vedi anche|Geonim}}

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<!--- da tradurre

During the [[Geonim|Geonic]] period (650-1250 CE), the [[Babylon]]ian schools were the chief centers of Jewish learning; the Geonim, the heads of these schools, were recognized as the highest authorities in [[Halakha|Jewish law]]. Despite difficulties that hampered the irregular communications of the period, Jews who lived even in most distant countries sent their inquiries concerning religion and law to these officials in Babylonia. In the latter centuries of the geonic period, from the middle of the tenth to the middle of the eleventh, their supremacy suffered, as the study of the Talmud received care in other lands. The inhabitants of these regions gradually began to submit their questions to the heads of the schools of their own countries. Eventually they virtually ceased sending their questions to Babylonian Geonim, so that during this period responsa of eminent rabbis of other lands appeared side by side with geonic rulings.<ref name="Jewish"/>

--->

===Caratteristiche===

{{...}}

<!--- da tradurre

*Geonic responsa are written in three languages, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], and [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. In the earliest period Aramaic, the language of the [[Gemara]], prevailed exclusively, but in the middle of the ninth century Hebrew began to appear in the responsa side by side with it. This innovation was due, on the one hand, to the study of Hebrew, which spread through rabbinical circles as a result of the [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite]] movement, and, on the other, to the fact that the rulings of the Geonim were sent to distant lands, where the inhabitants were unfamiliar with Aramaic; it thus became necessary to write to them in Hebrew, the dialect of the Mishnah. When Arabic became the prevailing language of the Jews, questions were frequently addressed to the Geonim in that tongue, whereupon the scholars of the academies used the same language in reply.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*Some of the responsa that have survived are in their original form, while others are extant only in extracts. The first collection appeared, together with brief geonic rulings, at [[Constantinople]] in 1516 under the title ''Halakot Pesukot min ha-Geonim'' ("Brief Rulings of the Geonim"), and in 1575 another corpus, entitled ''She'elot u-Teshubot me ha-Geonim,'' was published in the same city. At [[Salonica]] in 1792 Nissim ben Hayyim edited a collection of geonic responsa under the title ''Shaare Tzedek'' ("Gates of Justice"), which contains 533 responsa arranged according to subject, and an index by the editor. For the majority of these responsa the name of the author is cited, and many of them are reproduced in their original form with their Talmudic proofs and disquisitions.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*The responsa are characterized by a more developed literary style than in the Talmudic era. The Talmud had been completed and was recognized as authoritative, and was accessible to scholars. With an accurate knowledge of the Talmud, scholars might deduce for themselves rulings for any case that might present itself. Even in instances where the questioner was not versed in the Talmud and the responsum was required to give only a brief decision on the case under consideration, the ruling was usually not a mere "yes" or "no," "permitted" or "forbidden," but rather it was generally the custom for the scholars who prepared responsa to cite a passage from the Talmud in support or proof of their decisions, or to controvert any possible opposition by an anticipated refutation. Many of these questions have little practical use, but are concerned with the correct explanation of passages of the Talmud.<ref name="Jewish"/>

--->

===Primi ''Geonim''===

{{...}}

<!--- da tradurre

In the days of the earliest geonim the majority of the questions asked them were sent only from Babylonia and the neighboring lands, where the inhabitants were more or less acquainted with the Talmud and could visit the academies in [[Geonim#The Kallah|the Kallah months]] to hear Talmudic explanations by leading scholars. The questions, which were submitted in writing, were accordingly limited to one or more specific cases, while the responsum to such a query gave in brief form the required ruling and a concise reason for it, together with a citation of an analogous Talmudic instance (Judah Gaon, in "''Sha'are Ẓedeḳ''," iv. 4, 69, p. 71), and a refutation of any possible objection (ib. iv. 5, 27, p. 76b).<ref name="Jewish"/>

--->

===''Geonim'' successivi===

{{...}}

<!--- da tradurre

More discursive were the responsa of the later geonim after the first half of the ninth century, when questions began to be sent from more distant regions, where the inhabitants were less familiar with the Talmud, even if they possessed it, and were less able to visit the Babylonian academies, the only seats of Talmudic learning. Talmudic difficulties were often the subject of these inquiries.<ref name="Jewish"/>

The later geonim did not restrict themselves to the Mishnah and Talmud, but used the decisions and responsa of their predecessors, whose sayings and traditions were generally regarded as authoritative. These responsa of the later geonim were often essays on Talmudic themes, and since a single letter often answered many questions, it frequently became book-length in size. The letters of the Geonim, which, for the most part, contained replies to many problems, assumed a definite and official form. They began with the statement that the questions had been correctly received, read, and considered, and that the corresponding answers had been given in the presence of the gaon and with his approval.<ref name="Jewish"/>

--->

==I ''Rishonim''==

{{Vedi anche|Rishonim}}

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<!--- da tradurre

With the decline of the [[Geonim#Role in Jewish life|gaonate]] in the first half of the eleventh century, the Jews of various countries lost the central spiritual authorities who had hitherto given their decisions in doubtful problems. Thenceforth the appeal in religious and legal questions was to be made to the [[posek|rabbinical authorities]] of one's own or a neighboring country, so that inquiries sent during this period to Babylonia were rare and exceptional.<ref name="Jewish"/>

--->

===Caratteristiche===

{{...}}

<!--- da tradurre

*The questions were by no means restricted to practical problems, but many of them, in case the interpretation of a ''[[halakha|halakic]]'' or ''[[aggadah|haggadic]]'' passage in the Talmud was the subject of inquiry, were [[theoretical]] in nature. In their discussion of theoretical problems the responsa of the [[Sephardi Jews|Spanish]] scholars are noteworthy for the untrammeled scientific spirit that permeates them far more than those of the [[History of the Jews in France|French]] school. Even in responsa that are practical in bearing, a distinction may be drawn between the two schools.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*The responsa of the epoch came from various countries, and from schools having different tendencies, thus showing the position and the type of spiritual life in general and of Talmudic learning in particular, since all these factors prevailed in the different countries at the time. Especially noteworthy is the divergence between the French and the Spanish school in the twelfth century, the second half of this period. For the most part the rulings of this period receive their basis or their confirmation from a passage in the Talmud, and in this motivation the difference between the French and the Spanish exegesis of the Talmud is clearly shown. The Spanish school was the more logical, and strove for brevity and lucidity in the deduction of its rulings from the Talmud, while the French school was more dialectic, and frequently gave full play to casuistry at the expense of clearness.<ref name="Jewish"/>

--->

===XI secolo===

{{...}}

<!--- da tradurre

*The chief representative of the French school in the eleventh century was Solomon ben Isaac ([[Rashi]]), and many of his responsa have been preserved in the "''Pardes''" and in the ''[[Mahzor Vitry]]''. His decisions are written in Hebrew, without formulas either of introduction or of conclusion, although an interesting phrase that is peculiar to him, and was apparently invented by him occurs once: "I, the undersigned, was asked whether . . . thus have I heard from my teachers, and thus is my own opinion likewise inclined,..." the ruling being followed by the signature "Solomon b. Isaac," without any concluding formula (''Mahzor Vitry'', pp.&nbsp;434–435).<ref name="Jewish"/>

*The leader of the Spanish school in the same century was [[Isaac Alfasi]], who left many responsa, an entire collection being printed at [[Livorno|Leghorn]] in 1780, under the title "She'elot u-Teshubot ha-RIF" (Rabbi Isaac Alfasi). These decisions were written in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and were translated into [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] at an early date, being extant only in this version.<ref name="Jewish"/>

--->

===XII secolo===

{{...}}

<!--- da tradurre

*The chief representatives of the French school of the twelfth century were [[Rabbenu Tam|Jacob Tam]], [[Abraham ben David|Abraham ben David of Posquières]], and [[Eliezer ben Nathan|Eliezer ben Nathan of Mayence]].<ref name="Jewish"/>

**The responsa of Rabbi Tam are contained in his "''Sefer ha-Yashar''" as well as in the works of other authorities, such as [[Meir of Rothenburg]] and [[Mordechai ben Hillel]], "the Mordecai".<ref name="Jewish"/>

**The responsa of Eliezer ben Nathan, contained in his "''Even ha-Ezer''," are partly exegetic in character and partly devoted to practical decisions.<ref name="Jewish"/>

**The responsa of Abraham ben David are included in the collection entitled "''Tummat Yesharim''" or "''Temim De'im''" ([[Venice]], 1622).<ref>{{cite book|title=תמת ישרים|oclc=232936807|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/499|accessdate=May/1/13}}</ref> Particularly noteworthy is his injunction that Jewish law obligates Jews to follow the laws of the land, i.e., to follow the laws of the secular government in which a Jewish community found itself living. This ruling is based on the Talmudic saying: "The law of the land is valid" (ib. responsum No. 50).<ref name="Jewish"/>

*The chief representatives of the Spanish school in the twelfth century were [[Joseph ibn Migash]] and [[Maimonides]]. The responsa of ibn Migash include both practical decisions and explanations of difficult passages in the Mishnah and the Talmud, the first group being written in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and later translated into [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], while the greater portion of the second category was composed by the author himself in the Talmudic Hebrew idiom.<ref name="Jewish"/>

--->

===XIII secolo===

{{...}}

<!--- da tradurre

In this period the difference between the Spanish and the Franco-[[Ashkenazi Jews|German]] forms of responsa vanished. On the one hand, the scientific spirit of the Spanish school partially entered the academies of southern France, and, on the other hand, the dialecticism of the French rabbis steadily increased in influence in Spain.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*The chief representatives of the Spanish responsa in the thirteenth century were [[Nahmanides]] (Rabbi Moshe ben Nahman), Rabbi [[Solomon ben Adret]], and Rabbi [[Nissim ben Reuben]].<ref name="Jewish"/>

**Very few responsa by Nahmanides have been preserved. Those that exist are contained in a work entitled "''She'elot u-Teshubot''" ([[Venice]], 1523; [[Zolkiev]], 1798), in which are included in great part the responsa of Solomon ben Adret. To him came questions from the most distant communities. His responsa number about three thousand, and in content are partly practical and partly devoted to exegesis, ethics, and religious philosophy. The exegetic rulings interpreted difficult passages of the bible, the Talmud, and the works of older authors, while the practical responsa comprised decisions as to the ritual, civil and marital law, communal relations, and the contemporary political affairs of the Jews.<ref name="Jewish"/>

**The responsa of Solomon ben Adret fall into five parts. The first part ([[Bologna]], 1539) contains 1,255 responsa; part two, entitled "''Sefer Toledot Olam''" (Leghorn, 1654), contains 405; part three (ib. 1778) contains 445; part four (Salonica, 1803) contains 330; and part five (Leghorn, 1805) contains 298. Other responsa by him are included in the aforementioned "''She'elot u-Teshuvot''." A few examples of his decisions may be given. When asked concerning many discrepancies between the [[books of Chronicles]] and the other books of the Bible, he replied as follows (i., No. 12):<ref>{{cite web|title=שאלות ותשובות|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=1376&st=&pgnum=34|accessdate=May/1/13|language=[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]}}</ref> "A change in phraseology without an alteration of meaning is not surprising. Even in the [[Pentateuch]] apparent discrepancies of this kind are found, so that one of the sons of Simeon is called Zohar in {{Bibleverse||Gen.|46:10|JP}} and {{Bibleverse||Ex.|6:15|JP}}, and Zerah in {{Bibleverse||Num.|26:13|JP}}, but since both names signify 'magnificent,' the double nomenclature is explained." In responsum No. 395<ref>{{cite web|title=שאלות ותשובות|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=1376&st=&pgnum=166|accessdate=May/1/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> he describes his abolition of several superstitious customs, one of which was to kill an old cock, and to hang its head at the door on the occasion of the birth of a boy. Particularly noteworthy is responsum No. 548,<ref>{{cite web|title=תקמח|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=1376&pgnum=234|accessdate=May/1/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> in which he gives a decision regarding a marvelous child at [[Province of Ávila|Avila]], who had originally been idiotic, but later frequently fell into trances during which he composed works whose contents he declared had been communicated to him by an angel.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*The chief representative of the German school in the thirteenth century was Rabbi [[Meir ben Baruch of Rothenburg]]. Many of his responsa have been preserved, the oldest collection being the "''She'elot u-Teshubot''" ([[Cremona]], 1557)<ref>{{cite web|title=שאלות ותשובות|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/11877|accessdate=May/1/13}}</ref> with 315 responsa, while another corpus, which contained 1,022 responsa, appeared under the same title at [[Prague]] in 1608.<ref>{{cite web|title=שאלות ותשובות|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/11624|accessdate=May/1/13}}</ref> A collection of unedited responsa was issued at [[Lemberg]] in 1860, and in 1891 [[Moses Bloch]] published at [[Berlin]] a new corpus of unedited responsa of Meïr of Rothenburg under the title "Sefer Sha'are Teshubot Maharam."<ref>{{cite web|title=שערי תשובות|oclc=233099136|url=http://www.hebrewbooks.org/1496|accessdate=May/1/13}}</ref><ref name="Jewish"/> Maharam, famously, rules that a man may not hit his wife, "since,he may not hit another man, despite not owing him honour, whereas he owes her honour...".<ref>{{cite web|title=נספח ג|url=http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/kitveyet/hamaayan/divrey-2.htm|accessdate=Apr/29/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> The special interest of Meïr's responsa is the picture they give of the condition of the German Jews of his time, and of their sufferings from the caprice of princes and from heavy taxation. The collections of the responsa of Meïr of Rothenburg contain also the rulings of other older and contemporary rabbis of the Franco-German school.<ref name="Jewish"/>

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===XIV secolo===

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The principal representatives of the fourteenth century were [[Asher ben Jehiel]] (RoSH) and [[Isaac ben Sheshet|Isaac ben Sheshet Barfat]].<ref name="Jewish"/>

*The responsa of the RoSH first appeared at [[Constantinople]] in 1517 under the title "She'elot u-Teshubot,"<ref>{{cite book|title=שאלות ותשובות|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/11615|accessdate=May/1/13}}</ref> while an enlarged edition was published at [[Venice]] in 1607.<ref>{{cite book|title=שאלות ותשובות|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/11868|accessdate=May/1/13}}</ref> This collection of responsa is arranged according to 108 subjects, each of which has a special chapter, called "''kelal''," while at the head of every rubric stands a résumé of its contents and a numerical list of the responsa treating of each subject. This arrangement, however, was not the work of Asher himself, but was made probably by one of his pupils, possibly by his son Rabbi [[Judah ben Asher|Judah]]. From the responsa of Rabbi Asher may be gleaned many curious customs of the Spanish communities. To a question addressed to him from [[Burgos]], Asher responded (No. 68, 10)<ref>{{cite book|title=י|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=11868&st=&pgnum=209|accessdate=May/1/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> that according to Talmudic law no arrests could be made for debt, even in cases where the debtor had pledged his own person, although, on the other hand, he noted that it was the custom of the communities in Spain to imprison one who had failed to pay his quota of the royal tax until he should discharge his debt.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*The 518 responsa of [[Isaac ben Sheshet]] were published at Constantinople in 1546-47 as "She'elot u-Teshuvot".<ref>{{cite book|title=תשובות רבינו יצחק בר ששת|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/42318|accessdate=May/1/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> These responsa contain many disquisitions illustrative of the conditions of the times, including rulings on marriage and marital relations in the case of Jews who had been forcibly baptized, as well as other decisions relating to those who had been compelled to accept Christianity (e.g., Nos. 1,<ref>{{cite book|title=א|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=42318&st=&pgnum=22|accessdate=May/1/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> 4,<ref>{{cite book|title=ד|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=42318&st=&pgnum=23|accessdate=May/1/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> 6,<ref>{{cite book|title=ו|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=42318&st=&pgnum=25|accessdate=May/1/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> 11,<ref>{{cite book|title=יא|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=42318&st=&pgnum=29|accessdate=May/1/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> 12,<ref>{{cite book|title=יב|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=42318&st=&pgnum=30&hilite=|accessdate=May/1/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> 43<ref>{{cite book|title=מג|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=42318&st=&pgnum=53&hilite=|accessdate=May/1/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref>). Especially interesting are responsa that describe prevailing customs and regulations of the communities of the period, as in No. 158,<ref>{{cite book|title=קנח|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=42318&st=&pgnum=139|accessdate=May/1/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> which contains a noteworthy account of the [[Shiva (Judaism)|seven days of mourning]] after the death of a kinsman.<ref name="Jewish"/>

--->

==Gli ''Acharonim''==

{{Vedi anche|Acharonim}}

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This section covers responsa written during fifteenth to the eighteenth century, and includes responsa of [[Italian Jews|Italian]], [[Turkish Jews|Turkish]], [[Ashkenazi Jews|German]], and [[Polish Jews|Polish]] rabbis. This period is the richest in the responsa literature. It would therefore be impossible to enumerate all the collections; this section presents a survey of the chief representatives of each century and country.

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===Caratteristiche===

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These rulings are different from those of the previous periods in the nature of the problems presented, in the method of treatment, and in the arrangement of subject-matter.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*Since the respondents now belonged to the ''[[Acharonim]]'' (later rabbinic authorities) and no longer enjoyed the independence of the ''[[Rishonim]]'' (earlier rabbinic authorities) they sought to base their decisions on the older authorities. The field had already been thoroughly worked, and the respondent was consequently obliged to have studied it in all its aspects, and to have made a careful search for the question propounded to him or one analogous to it.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*In former times the questions had been devoted to many departments of knowledge, both sacred and profane, being concerned with ''halakic'' and exegetic themes as well as with ethical and philosophical problems, so that there was scarcely a subject of human activity or thought on which the responsa might not expatiate. In this period, on the other hand, the responsa were restricted almost entirely to legal regulations. Since the pronouncement of judgment was regarded as a religious duty, and since in most countries the Jews were unwilling to submit to a non-Jewish court, legal questions formed a large part of the responsa.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*In the older rulings [[:wikt:systematic|systematic]] sequence was almost entirely lacking, but the responsa of the new period had as models the "''[[Arba'ah Turim]]''" of [[Jacob ben Asher]] and, after the sixteenth century, the ''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' of [[Joseph Caro]], so that many of the responsa were arranged according to these two works, while among the later scholars this practice became the rule.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*While the decisions of the earlier epochs had been so lucid that the reader could easily follow them, the responsa of this period had changed completely, for the ''[[pilpul]]istic'' methods, which had been in vogue since the middle of the fifteenth century in the study of the Talmud. The ''halakic'' works forced their way into responsa literature as well. The responsa are remarkable for the hair-splitting [[dialectic]]s that characterizes them, and often robs them of lucidity.<ref name="Jewish"/>

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===XV secolo===

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*The most important German respondents of the fifteenth century were [[Israel Isserlein]] and [[Israel Bruna]].<ref name="Jewish"/>

**The collection of the responsa of Israel Isserlein, "''Terumat ha-Deshen''," comprises 354 decisions, which are important as describing many characteristic features of the time. Several of them (Nos. 341-346) discuss the apportionment of the [[taxes]] and the assessments, while others are concerned with the attitude to be observed toward a repentant [[apostate]] (No. 198). Particularly interesting is the responsum (No. 197) devoted to the problem whether Jews might so disguise themselves as to escape recognition in countries where they were absolutely [[Antisemitism|forbidden to reside]].<ref name="Jewish"/> He was lenient in cases of widows who lacked a divorce document ([[agunah]]).<ref>{{Jewish Encyclopedia |noicon=1|no-prescript=1|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8277-israel-isserlein|title= Isserlein (Isserlin), Israel Ben Pethahiah Ashkenazi|accessdate=Apr/29/13}}</ref>

**The responsa of [[Israel Bruna]], entitled "''She'elot u-Teshuvot''" ([[Stettin]], 1860),<ref>{{cite book|title=שו"ת מוהר"י מברונא|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/43514|accessdate=May/6/13}}</ref> likewise contain many interesting allusions to contemporary conditions, as in the case of No. 71,<ref>{{cite book|title=עא|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=43514&st=&pgnum=64|accessdate=May/6/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> which discusses the problem whether the Jews might attend races.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*In Italy the chief representatives of the fifteenth century were [[Joseph Colon]] and [[Judah Minz]].<ref name="Jewish"/>

*Especially important in the responsal literature of this century were the Turkish rabbis, among whom the chief were [[Jacob Berab]], [[Levi ibn Habib|Levi ben Chabib]], [[Elijah Mizrachi]], and [[Moses Alashkar]]. The responsa of Moses Alashkar (printed at [[Sabbionetta]] in 1554)<ref>{{cite book|title=שאלות ותשובות|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/11880|accessdate=May/6/13}}</ref> discuss whether a [[Convert to Judaism|converted Jew]] may be compelled by the provincial court to give his Jewish wife a [[Get (divorce document)|bill of divorce]] according to [[Jewish view of marriage#Divorce|Jewish procedure]] (No. 75, pp.&nbsp;136b-137a), and the question of the covering of the head and the [[Tzeniut#Practical applications|concealment of the hair]] in the case of a married woman (No. 35, pp.&nbsp;94 et seq.)<ref name="Jewish"/>

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===XVI secolo===

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*The chief Polish representatives of the sixteenth century were [[Moses Isserles]], [[Solomon Luria]], and [[Meir Lublin]]; the responsa of these scholars throw a flood of light on the condition of the Jews of the period, who evidently took high rank in Poland and were not unfamiliar with military arts, since they offered their services to the duke or to the prince on the outbreak of a war (comp. responsum. No. 43 of Meir Lublin).<ref name="Jewish"/>

*The chief Turkish respondents of this period were [[Joseph Caro]], Joseph ibn Leb, [[Samuel de Medina|Samuel of Modena]], and [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra|David abi Zimra]]. Of the responsa of the last-named, which are contained in several collections and are characterized by lucidity and strict logic. One (iv. 92) may be noted as especially interesting in that it discusses the problem whether a Jew may abjure his religion and accept [[Islam]] when threatened with death. Abi Zimra considers the question in detail, and determines the cases in which a Jew may thus save his life and the contingencies in which he should rather choose death.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*The only important Italian respondent of the sixteenth century was [[Menahem Azariah da Fano]], whose responsa were edited at [[Dyhernfurth]] in 1788.<ref>{{cite book|title=שאלות ותשובות|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/43036|accessdate=May/6/13}}</ref><ref name="Jewish"/>

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===XVII secolo===

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In the seventeenth century rabbis of various countries prepared responsa, but the Polish scholars were in the great majority.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*The chief German representative of responsal literature was [[Jair Hayyim Bacharach]].<ref name="Jewish"/>

*Among the Italian respondents the most important was [[Samuel Aboab]], whose decisions appeared at Venice in 1702 under the title "''Debar Shemu'el''".<ref>{{cite book|title=דבר שמואל|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/686|accessdate=May/6/13}}</ref><ref name="Jewish"/>

*Of the Turkish authorities the most prominent were [[Joseph Trani|Joseph ben Moses di Trani]] (MaHaRIT) and [[Jacob ben Hayyim Alfandari|Jacob Alfandari]], whose responsa, entitled "''Muẓẓal me-Esh''," were published at Constantinople in 1718.<ref name="Jewish"/>

* The principal Polish rabbis of the seventeenth century who wrote responsa were [[Aaron Samuel Kaidanover]] and [[Menahem Mendel Krochmal]]. The decisions of the former, which were published at [[Frankfort-on-the-Main]] in 1683 under the title "''Emunat Shemu'el'',"<ref>{{cite book|title=אמונת שמואל|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/19555|accessdate=May/6/13}}</ref> afford a glimpse of the plight of the German Jews of the time. The responsa of Menahem Mendel Krochmal appeared posthumously; the most noteworthy of his rulings is one (No. 2) in which he decided in favor of universal suffrage in the community, making no distinction between rich and poor, taxed and untaxed, learned and ignorant, but giving all an equal share in the choice of the rabbi, the [[dayan]], and the president.<ref name="Jewish"/>

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===XVIII secolo===

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In the eighteenth century the rabbis of various countries contributed to responsa literature, but the most important were still the Polish scholars.<ref name="Jewish"/>

*The chief representative of Germany was [[Jacob Emden]], whose responsa form the collection entitled "She'elot Ya'abetz" (Lemberg, 1884).<ref>{{cite book|title=שאילת יעבץ|oclc=233093324|url=http://www.hebrewbooks.org/1408|accessdate=May/6/13}}</ref><ref name="Jewish"/>

*Among the many noteworthy Polish scholars are [[Meir Eisenstadt]] and [[Ezekiel Landau]].<ref name="Jewish"/>

**The Responsa of Meir Eisenstadt, entitled "Panim Me'irot" contains one (ii., No. 152) "particularly interesting" ruling, in which he stigmatizes as presumptuous arrogance the practice of ostentatiously wearing white garments in the fashion of the [[Kabbalah|Kabbalists]], while the general custom was to wear black clothing.<ref name="Jewish"/>

**The collection of responsa by Ezekiel Landau, known as "Noda' bi-Yehudah," was esteemed by rabbis and scholars, as distinguished both for its logical discussion and for its independence with regard to the rulings of later authorities as contrasted with its adherence to the writings of earlier scholars.<ref name="Jewish"/>

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==XIX secolo e inizi XX secolo==

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In this period, many responsa deal with problems taken from modern experience. Responsa have been inspired or necessitated by economic growth, social movements, and advances in [[technology]], which wrought sweeping changes in the lives and living conditions of the Jews in different countries, as well as within Judaic streams; e.g., those of [[Reform Judaism]] and [[Zionism]].<ref name="Jewish"/>

The movements for the reform of Judaism evoked many responsa in reply to questions concerning the ___location of the ''[[bimah]]'', [[Church organ|organ]] accompaniments, the [[Kippah|covering of the head]] in the [[synagogue]], [[Conservative Judaism#Specific Jewish-Law Decisions|the seating of men and women together]], and [[Jewish prayer|prayers]] in the vernacular.<ref name="Jewish"/>

Jewish settlement in [[Palestine]] had occasioned many responsa on questions connected with [[agriculture]] and [[horticulture]] in the [[Holy Land]], including the problems of the cessation of all labor in the fields during the [[shmita|Sabbatical year]] and the use of [[Balady citron|etrog]]s from Israel.<ref name="Jewish"/>

Following are representative examples:

*In a responsum ("''Hatam Sofer'', ''Orah Hayyim''," No. 28) [[Moses Sofer]] discussed the problem of whether the "''bimah''" might be removed from the center and placed near the [[Torah ark|Ark]], as is now the case in all Reform and even in many Orthodox synagogues, but was then interdicted as an innovation. In another responsum (ib. "''Yoreh De'ah''," No. 128) he debated whether a Jewish sculptor was permitted by his religion to [[Aniconism in Judaism|carve human figures]].<ref name="Jewish"/>

*In a responsum [[Joseph Saul Nathanson]] discussed the problem of the transfer of a corpse from one place of burial to another ("''Sho'el u-Meshib''," i., No. 231). In another responsum (ib. iii., No. 373) he replied in the affirmative to a question sent him from [[New York]] asking whether a [[Protestant church]] might be changed into a synagogue.<ref name="Jewish"/> He was one of the first to permit the use of machinery in baking [[Matzah]].<ref>[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Passover/TO_Pesach_History/Modern_176/Machine_552.htm]</ref>

*[[Isaac Schmelkes]] passed judgment ("''Bet-Yitzchak''," i., [[Przemyśl|Przemysl]], 1901, No. 29)<ref>{{cite web|title=סי' כט|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=629&pgnum=43|accessdate=May/6/13|language=Hebrew}}</ref> on the question of [[civil marriage]], which is permitted by the laws of Hungary between Jews and non-Jews, and he debated also (ib. ii., Przemysl, 1895, No. 31) whether [[electric light]]s may be used for [[Hanukkah]], and (ib. No. 58) whether the [[telephone]] or the [[phonograph]] may be used on [[shabbat|the Sabbath]].<ref name="Jewish"/>

In addition to the collections of responsa already mentioned, important examples of responsal literature in the nineteenth century include: the "''Ḥesed le-Abraham''" of Abraham Te'omim (Lemberg, 1898),<ref>{{cite book|title=חסד לאברהם|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/123|accessdate=May/6/13}}</ref> the "''Ketab Sofer''" of [[Abraham Samuel Benjamin Sofer]] ([[Presburg]], 1873<ref>{{cite book|title=כתב סופר חלק אורח חיים|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/950|accessdate=May/6/13}}</ref>-84), and the "''Be'er Yiẓḥaḳ''" of [[Isaac Elhanan Spektor]] ([[Königsberg]], n.d.).<ref>{{cite book|title=באר יצחק|url=http://hebrewbooks.org/1024|accessdate=May/6/13}}</ref><ref name="Jewish"/>

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==XX secolo==

=== Responsa dell'Ebraismo ortodosso===

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In contemporary [[Orthodox Judaism]], responsa remain a primary channel whereby [[Halakha|halakhic]] decisions and policies are formulated and communicated. Notable collections of Responsa published in the 20th Century include those by [[Moshe Feinstein]], [[Ovadia Yosef]], [[Eliezer Waldenberg]] and [[Yechiel Yaakov Weinberg]].

Contemporary responsa deal with both traditional questions and phenomena associated with modern social, religious, medical and technological developments. For example, Israeli astronaut [[Ilan Ramon]] noted that, while orbiting the earth, the space shuttle experiences a day/night cycle approximately every ninety minutes. Thus, Ramon asked whether he should keep the Sabbath according to Earth time, or mark it once every seven day/night cycles (ten and a half hours). And if according to Earth time, then what ___location on Earth should this be based upon? The rabbis concluded that he was to celebrate the Sabbath in accordance with Earth time, based on the place of his departure – Cape Canaveral.<ref>http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/632169/jewish/Shabbat-in-Space.htm</ref>

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===Responsa dei conservatori e masorti===

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[[Conservative Judaism]] holds that Orthodoxy has deviated from historical Judaism through excessive concern with recent codifications of Jewish law. Conservative rabbis make a conscious effort to use historical sources to determine what kind of changes occurred, how and why they occurred, and in what historical context. With this information they believe that can better understand a proper way for rabbis to interpret and apply Jewish law to our conditions today. Like Orthodoxy, there is no one legal body that speaks for all Jewish in their religious community.

When defined narrowly as the Conservative ''movement'', Conservative Judaism has two law committees: In the USA there is the [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]], and in the [[State of Israel]] there is the [[Vaad Halakhah]] of the [[Masorti]] movement.

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==Voci correlate==

* [[Halakhah]]

* [[Rabbino]]

* [[Talmud]]

* [[Posek]]

* [[Torah orale]]

==Bibliografia==

{{JewishEncyclopedia}} - [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12692-responsa articolo sui responsa ebraici, ''s.v.'' <small>"SHE'ELOT U-TESHUBOT"</small>]<br/>

La nota bibliografica della ''JE'' inoltre afferma che questo genere letterario non ha ancora acquisito una sua propria disciplina storiografica, sebbene certi periodi siano sati studiati dai seguenti autori:

*Joel Müller, ''Briefe und Responsen aus der Vorgaonäischen Jüdischen Literatur'', Berlino, 1886;

*''idem'', ''Einleitung in die Responsen der Babylonischen Geonen'', ''ib.'', 1891;

*Zacharias Frankel, ''Entwurf einer Geschichte der Literatur der Nachtalmudischen Responsen'', Breslau, 1865.

* J. D. Eisenstein, ''The Development of Jewish Casuistic Literature in America'', Baltimore, 1905.

==Note==

<references/>

{{Box successione

==Collegamenti esterni==

|tipologia = militare

*{{en}} [http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Responsa/ Progetto Bar Ilan Responsa]

|carica = [[Capitano generale della Chiesa]]

*{{en}} [http://sites.google.com/site/sagesofashkenaz/Home/seforim-index/genre/responsa/ "Sages of Ashkenaz", Raccolta di responsa]

|immagine = Flag of the Papal States (pre 1808).svg

*{{en}} [http://www.halachabrura.org/alephlink.htm#%F9%E5%FA; Indice dei Responsa Ortodossi]

|periodo = [[1458]] - [[1464]]

*{{en}} [http://web.archive.org/web/20070626213439/http://learn.jtsa.edu/topics/diduknow/lgresponsa/ I responsa del Professor Louis Ginzberg] (copia archiviata, da web.archive.org)

|precedente = [[Pier Luigi Borgia]]

*{{en}} [http://www.responsafortoday.com/ Responsa ''Masorti'' & ''Conservatori'']

|successivo = [[Girolamo Riario]]

*{{en}} [http://data.ccarnet.org/resp/tindex.html Indice per tema di responsa non obbligatori dell'Ebraismo Riformato]

}}

{{Ebraismo ortodosso}}

{{Torah Bereshit}}

{{Portale|Ebraismo}}

{{Portale|biografie|storia}}

[[Categoria:Testi sacri ebraici]]