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[[Image:Yupik shaman Nushagak.jpg|thumb|[[Central Alaskan Yup'ik|Yup'ik]] [[shaman]] exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy. [[Nushagak, Alaska|Nushagak]], [[Alaska]], 1890s.<ref name="fienupriordanphoto">Fienup-Riordan, Ann. (1994). ''Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition''. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, p. 206.) [[Nushagak, Alaska | Nushagak]], located on [[Nushagak Bay]] of the Bering Sea in southwest [[Alaska]], is part of the territory of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik|Yup'ik]], speakers of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language]].</ref>]]
'''Eskimo shamanism''' refers to the those aspects of the culture of the [[Eskimo]] (Inuit and Yup'ik) peoples, which are related to a certain mediator role between people and spirits, souls, mythological beings. Such [[Shamanism|shamanistic]] beliefs and practices were once widespread among Eskimo groups, but today are rarely practiced.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/>
== Relatedness to other cultures termed “shamanistic” ==
Can Eskimo cultures labelled as “shamanistic”? When speaking of “shamanism” in various Eskimo groups, it is important to note that the term “shamanism” has been used for various distinct cultures. Classically, [[Shamanism in Siberia|some indigenous cultures of Siberia]] were described as having “shamans”, but the term is now used for other cultures as well. In general, the belief systems termed “shamanistic” accept that certain people (the shamans) can in the role of a mediator with the spirit world,<ref name=Hop-SamEu/> contacting the various beings that populate the belief system (spirits, souls, mythological beings).
The word “shaman” comes from a [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic language]] and means “he/she who knows”.<ref name=Hop-SamEu/> The shaman is really an expert in their own culture, thus the audience trusts them, and they can act with the safety of [[knowledge]] (using various means including musical, epical, choreographic, or manifested in objects).<ref name=Hop-SamEu>Hoppál 2005</ref> The shamans may use the knowledge for the benefit of the community, or for doing harm. They may have helping spirits, travel to other words.
Most Eskimo groups knew such role of mediator:<ref name=Men-Pop/> the person filling it in was actually believed to be able to command helping spirits, ask mythological beings to “release” the souls of animals to enable the success of the hunt, heal sick people by bringing back their “stolen” souls. Term “shaman” is used in several English-language publications also in relation to Eskimos (academic<ref name=KleiSon-Esk/><ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/> and popular),<ref name=Vit-Sam>Vitebsky 2001</ref> mostly for [[angakkuq]]. The {{IPA|/aˈliɣnalʁi/}} of the [[Siberian Yupik]]s is also translated as “shaman” in the Russian and English literature<ref name=Rub-Mat>Rubcova 1954</ref><ref name=Men-Pop/>
Eskimo shamanism also exhibits some unique features, or features not shared with all shamanistic religions. The [[soul]] concepts of several groups are specific examples of [[soul dualism]], and the belief system assumes specific links between the living, the souls of hunted animals, and those of dead people. Unlike in many Siberian cultures, the careers of most Eskimo shamans lack the motivaton of ''force'': becoming a shaman is usually a result of human decision, not a necessity forced by the spirits.<ref name=KleiSon-Esk/>
=== Career of the Eskimo shaman ===
====
In the case of many Siberian peoples, the shaman may be forced by the spirits to accept their profession.<ref name=Dio-Sam>Diószegi 1962</ref> This forced motivation is generally lacking in Eskimo culture; even if the apprentice gets a “calling”, they can refuse it.<ref name=KleiSon-Esk/>
==== Initiation ====
The career of the apprentice Eskimo shaman usually includes a difficult learning and [[initiation]] process, sometimes including a [[vision quest]]. Like the shamans of some other cultures, the Eskimo shaman may be believed to have a special career: they may have been an animal at a period of their life, and thus be able to use the valuable experiences learned for the benefit of the community.<ref name=Bar-Esk>„Die Seele, die alle Tiere durchwanderte”. A tale, in the following book: Barüske, Heinz: Eskimo Märchen. Eugen Diederichs Verlag (series: „Die Märchen der Weltliteratur”), Düsseldorf • Köln 1969. On pp 19–23, tale 7.</ref><ref name=Vit-Sam>Vitebsky 1996, pg. 106</ref><ref>“[http://www.archive.org/download/eskimofolktales00rasmrich/eskimofolktales00rasmrich.pd The soul that lived in the bodies of all beasts]” ([[PDF]]). In: Eskimo Folk-Tales. Collected by Knud Rasmussen, edited and rendered into English by W. Worster, with illustrations by native Eskimo artists. Gyldendal, London • Copenhagen, 1921, pg. 100</ref>
===
In several groups, there was a special distinct language inside the community which consisted of an [[Archaism|archaic]] version of the normal language, interlaced with special [[metaphor]]s and speech styles. In some groups, such variants were used when speaking with spirits invoked by the shaman and with unsocialised babies who grew into the human society through a special ritual performed by its mother. Some writers have treated it as a language for communication with “alien” beings.<ref name=KleiSon-Esk/> Expert shamans could speak whole sentences differing from vernacular speech.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/>.
The role of the shaman's language, contacting “alien” beings,<ref name=KleiSon-Esk/> can be seen from the fact that a similar language is used for an analogous goal. A mother may talk to her baby in a non-vernacular language during a socialization ritual — the newborn is regarded as a little “alien” (just like spirits or animal souls).<ref name=KleiSon-Esk/>
=== Position ===
Border between shaman and laic was not entirely sharp. Also laic people could experience visions<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/>. Expreinces like hering voices from ice, stones were spoken about just like normal hunting experiences.<ref name=Ras-ThulF/> Having and commanding helping spirits were characteristic to shamans, but alsoalso laic could profit fom powers by use of [[amulets]]. Let us mention as extreme a [[#Netsilingmiut|Netsilingmiut example]], where a child had 80 amulets for pritecton.
=== Soul dualism ===
{{Main|Soul dualism}}
The Eskimo shaman may fulfill multiple functions, including healing, curing [[Infertility|infertile]] women, and securing the success of hunts (in the case of a scarcity of game or a long meteorological calamity hindering hunting, such as a blizzard).
This plethora of (seemingly unassociated) functions can be grasped better by understanding the soul concept which underlies them. Variations occur among Eskimos, but in general they are a special variant of [[soul dualism]].
;Healing
:It is held that the cause of sickness is ''soul theft'': somebody (an enemy shaman, a spirit, etc.) has stolen the soul of the sick person. The reason the person would remain alive is explained by the belief that people had multiple souls. Stealing the appropriate soul of the victim does not cause immediate death, only illness or prolonged death. It takes a shaman to bring back the stolen soul. The soul-thief can be an enemy shaman.<ref name=Ras-ThulF/> According to another variant observed among [[Ammassalik]] Eskimos in East Greenland, even the joints of the body have their own small souls. If such a small soul escapes, that is the explanation of pain.<ref name="Gabus">Gabus 1970</ref>
;Fertity
:The shaman avails the soul of the future child to be born by the woman.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHidfour>Merkur 1985, p. 4</ref>
;Success of hunts
:The shaman visits a mythological being who protects all sea animals (usually, the [[Sedna (mythology)|Sea Woman]]). The Sea Woman keeps the souls of sea animals (in her house, or in a pot). If the shaman pleases her, she releases the animal souls, ending the scarcity of game.<ref name=KleiSon-Esk/>
It is the shaman's ''free soul'' that can take part in a spirit journey to far and dangerous places (land of dead, Sea Woman, Moon etc) while his body is still alive.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHidfour/> At the initiation of the apprentice shaman, the initiator extracts the shaman's free soul and makes it familiar to the helping spirits so that they shall listen when the new shaman invokes them.<ref name=Ras-ThulF/><ref name=Mer-BecHalfHidonetwoone>Merkur 1985, p. 121</ref>
Animals may have shared souls (shared across their species).<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/> The baby's developing own soul was usually “supported” by a ''name-soul'': the baby was given the name of a dead relative, whose name-soul has accompanied and helped the child till adolescence. This concept of inheriting name-souls could amount to a kind of [[reincarnation]] among some groups (Caribou Eskimos).<ref name=KleiSon-Esk/>
=== Publicity versus secrecy ===
It was believed in several contexts, that [[secrecy]] ([[privacy]]) may be needed to the effectivenes of an act or an object (either beneficial or harmful, intended or incidental), and [[publicity]] may cause its neutralisation.
* Magic formulae usually required secrecy, they could lose their power if they became known by other people than their owners.
* Also the deliberate harmful magical act (ilisiinneq) had to be done in secrecy.
* If the victim of another detrimental magical act (tupilak-making) had enough magical power (e.g. by amulets} to notice the enemic act and “rebound” it back to the person who executed it, then the thus endangered person could escape only by public confession of his planned (and failed) sorcery.
* a [[rite of passage]] celebrating the first major hunting succes of a boy often contained a “partaking” element: the whole community incised the already killed game or took part in its consumption. Because the function of this rite of passage was to establish a positive relationship between the young man and game, and the killed animal could bring dangers to the hunter. The partaking ritual of the community lessened this danger by sharing the responsibility.
Some of the shaman's functions can be understood in the light of this notion of secrecy/publicity. The cause of illness was usually believed to be (besides soul theft) a breach of some [[taboo]] (e.g. the conceiving of an abortion). The public confession (lead by the shaman during a public seance) could bring relief the patient. Similar remarks apply for taboo breaches endangering the whole community (wrath of mythical beings causing calamities).<ref name=KleiSon-Esk/>
== Certain unity of Eskimo cultures ==
[[Eskimo]] groups comprise a huge area stretching from [[Eastern Siberia]] through [[Alaska]] and [[Northern Canada]] (including [[Labrador Peninsula]]) to [[Greenland]]. Important examples of [[Shamanism|shamanistic]] practice and beliefs have been recorded at several parts of this vast area crosscutting continental borders.<ref name=KleiSon-Esk>Kleivan 1985</ref><ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid>Merkur 1985</ref><ref name="Gabus" />
Do the belief systems of various Eskimo groups have such common features that justifies speaking about “Eskimo” belief systems? There is a certain unity in the culture of the Eskimo groups.<ref name=Ras-ThulF>Rasmussen 1926</ref><ref name=Mau-Mor>Mauss 1979</ref> Although a large distance separated the Asiatic Eskimos and Greenland Eskimos, their shamanistic seances showed many similarities.<ref name=Men-Pop>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]</ref> Similar remarks apply for comparisons of Asiatic with North American Eskimo shamanisms.<ref name=Vit-Sam/> Also the usage of a specific shaman's language is documented among several Eskimo groups,<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/><ref name=KleiSon-Esk/> including Asian ones.<ref>Rubcova 1954, pg. 128</ref>
Similar remarks apply for aspects of the belief system not directly linked to shamanism:
* [[tattoo]]ing<ref name=Kut-Tat>[http://www.vanishingtattoo.com/arctic_tattoos.htm Tattoos of the early hunter-gatherers of the Arctic] written by [http://www.vanishingtattoo.com/lars_krutak.htm Lars Krutak]</ref>
* accepting the killed game as a dear guest visiting the hunter<ref>Rubcova 1954, pg. 218</ref>
* usage of [[amulet]]s<ref>Rubcova 1954, pg. 380</ref>
* lack of [[totem]] animals<ref name=radio>{{ru icon}} [http://www.echo.msk.ru/guests/6456/ A radio interview with Russian scientists about Asian Eskimos]</ref><ref name=Rad-Tot>Radcliffe-Brown, A.R. (1952) The Sociological Theory of Totemism. In Structure and Function in Primitive Society. Glencoe: The Free Press.</ref>
=== Inuit ===
==== Netsilingmiut ====
Also dogs can get amulets.<ref>Rasmussen 1965, p. 268</ref> A young boy was given that many amulets that he could hardly play. He had 80 amulets!<ref>Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 43</ref> Also, a man had 17 names, these were names of his ancestor, and he believed that they protect him. Rasmussen attributes these large numbers to the fact that the Netsilingmiut live among very hard conditons, the winter is extremely long, the spring is stormy, starvation is not unknown at all.<ref name=thatmany/>
Moon man is frendly<ref name=moonfriend>p. Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 30</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965, p. </ref> (unlike in Greenland<ref name=moonfriend/>). Sila was male. Netsiliks (and Copper Eskimos) had a tale that Sila's origin can be attributed to a baby of a giant, whose parents were killed in a combat between giants, helped by people.<ref>Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 31</ref> The Sea Woman's name was Nuliayuk “the lubricous one”<ref>Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 27,</ref> she had been originally an orphan girl mishandled by her community (thus, not by her father)<ref>Rasmussen 1965, 278</ref>.
Tattooing provided magical power, and it could affect which world a woman gets to after her death.<ref>Rasmussen 1965, p. 279</ref><ref name>Rasmussen, 1965, p. 256+</ref>
==== Caribou Eskimos ====
The term “Caribou Eskimos” is a collective noun for inland Eskimos living in an area bordered by the [[tree line]] and the west shore of [[Hudson bay]]. They include several groups, namely Krenermiut, Aonarktormiut, Harvaktormiut, Padlermiut, Ahearmiut. Caribou Eskimos do not form a political unit, contacts between the groups are loose, but they have inland lifestyle and some cultural unity. In the near past, Padlermiuts established contacts with the sea, they take part in seal hunt.<ref>Gabus 1970, p. 145</ref>
Also their soul concept included [[soul dualism]]. The soul associated with respiration was called ''umaffia'' (place of life).<ref>Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 18</ref> Another source mentions the personal soul of the child, ''tarneq'', it corresponds to the ''nappan'' of Copper Eskimos. The personal soul of the child was believed so weak that it needed the guardianship of a name-soul of a dead relative. Such presence of the ancestor in the body of the child lead to a gentle behavior especially toward boys<ref>Gabus 1965, p. 111</ref>. The belief amounted to a special form of [[reincarnation]] of the dead in the child.<ref>Kleivan&Sonne, p. 18</ref><ref>Gabus 1965, p. 212</ref>
Because of their inland lifestyle, they have no belief about a Sea Woman. Other cosmic beings filled in her role (regarding caribous instead of marine animals): Sila, Pinga. Some groups made a distinction between the two, others mixed them up.<ref>Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 31</ref> Sacrificial gifts could promote luck in hunting.<ref>Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 36</ref>
The shaman could fill in also a [[fortune-telling]] function by a special style of ''qilaneq''. It was a technique of asking a so-called ''qila''-spirit. The shaman raised his shaman staff and shaman belt over his glove lying on the ground. The ''qila'' was believed to enter the glove and draw the staff to itself. In genarally, qilaneq, practiced at several other Eskimo groups, consisted of fortune-telling techniques to achieve yes/no answer.
=== Yupik ===
Also Yupik knew [[tattooing]]<ref name=Kut-Tat/>.
===
==
* [[Angakkuq]]
==
{{reflist}}
==References==
*{{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Samanizmus |year=1962 |Gondolat |___location=Budapest |series=Élet és Tudomány Kiskönyvtár}}
*{{cite book |last=Gabus |first=Jean |title=A karibu eszkimók |year=1970 |publisher=Gondolat Kiadó |___location=Budapest}} Translation of the original: {{cite book |title=Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous |year=1944 |publisher=Libraire Payot Lausanne}}
*{{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Sámánok Eurázsiában |year=2005 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |___location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-05-8295-3}} (The title means “Shamans in Eurasia”, the book is written in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], but it is also published in German, Estonian and Finnish). [http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=906&pn=2&cnt=31&catID=&prodID=17202&pdetails=1 Site of publisher with short description on the book (in Hungarian)]
*{{cite book |last=Kleivan |fist=I. |coauthor=B. Sonne |title=Eskimos: Greenland and Canada |year=1985 |publisher=Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill |___location=Leiden, The Netherlands |series: Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Artic Peoples", fascicle 2. |isbn=90-04-07160-1}}
*{{cite book |last=Mauss |first=Marcel |others=in collab. with Henri Beuchat; translated, with a foreward, by James J. Fox |title=Seasonal variations of the Eskimo: a study in social morphology |origyear=c1950 |year=1979 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |___location=London}}
*{{cite book |last=Menovščikov, G. A. (Г. А. Меновщиков) |title=Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes}} Translated into English and published in: {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |coauthors=Mihály Hoppál |title=Folk Beliefs and Shamanistic Traditions in Siberia |origyear=1968 |year=1996 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |___location=Budapest}}
*{{cite book |last=Merkur |first=Daniel |title=Becoming Half Hidden: Shamanism and Initiation among the Inuit |year=1985 |publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell |___location=Stockholm |series: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis / Stockholm Studies in Comparative Religion}}
*{{cite book |last=Rasmussen |first=Knud |title=Thulefahrt |year=1926 |publisher=Frankurter Societăts-Druckerei |___location=Frankfurt am Main}}
*{{cite book |last=Rubcova |first=E. S. |title=Materials on the Language and Folklore of the Eskimoes (Vol. I, Chaplino Dialect) |year=1954 |publisher=Academy of Sciences of the USSR |___location=Moscow • Leningrad}} Original data: {{cite book |last=Рубцова |first=Е. С. |title=Материалы по языку и фольклору эскимосов (чаплинский диалект) |year=1954 |publisher=Академия Наук СССР |___location=Москва • Ленинград}}
*{{cite book |last=Vitebsky |first=Piers |authorlink=Piers Vitebsky |title=The Shaman: Voyages of the Soul - Trance, Ecstasy and Healing from Siberia to the Amazon |year=2001 |publisher=Duncan Baird |isbn=1-903296-18-8}}
*{{cite book |last=Vitebsky |first=Piers |title=A sámán |year=1996 |publisher=Magyar Könyvklub • Helikon Kiadó |___location=Budapest}}. Translation of the original: {{cite book |title=The Shaman (Living Wisdom) |year=1995 |publisher=Duncan Baird}}
[[Category:Shamanism]]
[[Category:Eskimos]]
[[Category:Cultural anthropology]]
[[hu:Eszkimó samanizmus]]
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