Pliopithecoidea: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Extinct superfamily of primates}}

{{Taxobox

{{Automatic taxobox

| name = Pliopithecoidea

| fossil_range = {{fossil range|EarlyMiddle Miocene|PlioceneLate Miocene}}

| image = =Epipliopithecus vindobonensis.jpg

| image_caption = ''[[Epipliopithecus]]'' skull

| taxon = Pliopithecoidea

| regnum = [[Animal]]ia

| authority =

| phylum = [[Chordata]]

| subdivision_ranks = [[families]]Families, [Subfamily|[sub-families]]subfamilies & unplaced [[Genera]]genera

| classis = [[Mammalia]]

| subdivision = [[Dionysopithecidae]] <br> [[Pliopithecidae]] <br> [[Crouzeliinae]] <br> Genus ''[[Paidopithex]]'' <br> Genus ''[[Krishnapithecus]]'' <br> ''[[Kapi (mammal)|Kapi]]''

| ordo = [[Primate]]s

| parvordo = [[Catarrhini]]

| superfamilia = '''Pliopithecoidea'''

| subdivision_ranks = [[families]], [Subfamily|[sub-families]] & unplaced [[Genera]]

| subdivision = [[Dionysopithecidae]] <br> [[Pliopithecidae]] <br> [[Crouzeliinae]] <br> Genus [[Paidopithex]] <br> Genus [[Krishnapithecus]]

}}

'''Pliopithecoidea''' is an extinct superfamily of [[catarrhine]] [[primate]]s that inhabited Asia and Europe during the [[Miocene]] and Pliocene.<ref name="Begun2002">{{cite book|last1=Begun|first1=David|title=The Pliopithecoidea|date=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0 -521 -66315 -6|url=http://anthropology.utoronto.ca/Faculty/Begun/Begunplio.pdf|access-date=2016-02-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925175647/http://anthropology.utoronto.ca/Faculty/Begun/Begunplio.pdf|archive-date=2011-09-25|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Harrison2013">{{cite book|last1=Harrison|first1=Terry|title=Catarrhine Origins|date=2013|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|url=https://www.academia.edu/7124992/2013_Harrison_-_Catarrhine_Origins}}</ref> Although they were once a widespread and diverse group of primates, the Pliopithecoidspliopithecoids have no living descendants.

== History of discovery ==

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In the mid-twentieth century, paleontologists [[Johannes Hürzeler]] and [[Helmuth Zapfe]] reinvigorated interest in the pliopithecoids with a series of publications in which they named a number of new species, including ''Pliopithecus vindobonensis'', which consists of the most complete cranial and post-cranial pliopithecoid specimens ever discovered. Based on their size, and some superficial similarities to modern day gibbons, Zapfe suggested that pliopithecoids were ancestral to the [[Hylobatidae]] lineage.<ref name="Zapfe1958">{{cite journal|last1=Zapfe|first1=Helmuth|title=The skeleton of ''Pliopithecus'' (''Epipliopithecus'') ''vindobonesis'' Zapfe and Hürzeler|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|date=1958|volume=16|issue=4|pages=441–457|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330160405}}</ref>

With the discovery of more European pliopithecoid fossils in the mid to late 1970s,<ref name="Ginsburg1975">{{cite journal|last1=Ginsburg|first1=Leonard|title=Les Pliopithe`'ques des faluns helve´tiens de la Touraine et de l’Anjoul'Anjou |journal=Colloques Internationaux du Centre nationalNational de la rechercheRecherche scientifiqueScientifique |date=1975|issue=218|pages=877–886}}</ref><ref name="Ginsburg&Mein1980">{{cite journal|last1=Ginsburg|first1=Leonard|last2=Mein|first2=Pierre|title=''Crouzelia rhondanica'', nouvelle espe`'ce de primate catarrhinien, et essai sur la position systématique de Pliopithecidae|journal=Bulletin du Muséum nationalNational d'histoireHistoire naturelleNaturelle, Paris|date=1980|issue=4|pages=57–85}}</ref> and subsequent discovery of pliopithecoid fossils in China,<ref name="Li1978">{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Chuan-kuei|title=A Miocene gibbon-like primate from Shihhung, Kiangsu Province|journal=Vertebrata PalAsiatica |date=1978|issue=16|pages=187–192}}</ref> the idea that pliopithecoids were ancestral to gibbons fell out of favor. Today, most paleontologists agree that pliopithecoids hold a basal position in the [[catarrhine]] family tree.<ref name="Begun2002" /><ref name="Harrison2013" /><ref name="Alba&Moyà-Solà2012">{{cite journal|last1=Alba|first1=David|last2=Moyà-Solà|first2=Salvador|title=A New Pliopithecid Genus (Primates: Pliopithecoidea) From Castel de Barberà (Vallès-Penedès Basin, Catalonia, Spain)|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|date=2012|issuevolume=147|issue=1|pages=88–112|doi=10.1002/ajpa.21630|pmid=22101732}}</ref> As such, pliopithecoids represent something similar to the common ancestor of [[Old World monkey]]s and [[ape]]s.

A [[femur]] discovered in [[Eppelsheim]] and given the Genusgenus name ''[[Paidopithex]]'' was for many years controversial, as its large size compared to Pliopithecoids led to suggestions that it was instead related to the [[Dryopithecini]]. A lack of femurs for Dryopithecini meant that the suggestion was not ruled out for many years, but in 2002 work by Köhler et al comparing it to a recently discovered ''[[Dryopithecus laietanus]]'' skeleton showed that it was very different from the Dryopithecini. However, Köhler felt unable to definitely place Paidopithex in the Pliopithecoid superfamily, stating it was either an unusually large Pliopithecoid (estimated bodyweight 22kg22&nbsp;kg) or could be the sole known species of a separate superfamily.<ref name="Kohler">{{cite web |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12448015journal |title=Taxonomic affinities of the Eppelsheim femur |last1=Köhler |first1=M |last2=Alba |first2=DM|last3=Solà |first3=SM|last4=MacLatchy |first4=L|date=December 2002 |publisherjournal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |pmid=12448015 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.10140 |volume=119 |issue=4 |pages=297–304}}</ref>

A worn tooth found near [[Haritalyangar]] in India and dated from around 9 to 8 million years ago has been suggested as possibly a Pliopithecoid species, [[Krishnapithecus krishnai]], but the wear has made this difficult to determine.<ref name="Begun2012">{{cite book |last1title=BegunThe International Encyclopedia of Biological Anthropology |first1volume=David1 |titleeditor-first=AWenda Companion To|editor-last=Trevathan Paleoanthropology|datelast=2012Harrison|first=Terry|publisher=John Wiley Blackwell& Sons |doi=10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0087 |year=2018 |pages=306–311 |chapter=Catarrhine Origins |isbn=978-1-118-3323758442-52 |chapter-url=https://bookswww.googleacademia.co.ukedu/books?id=oIoT1RcFeCwC&pg=PT276&lpg=PT27638186334}}</ref> However, two recently discovered molars in the same area appear to support this, with placement within the superfamily uncertain (but clearly not Crouzeliinae).<ref name="Sankhyan">{{cite web |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047248417300301journal |title=A highly derived pliopithecoid from the Late Miocene of Haritalyangar, India |last1=Sankhyan |first1=Anek |last2=Kelley |first2=Jay|last3=Harrison |first3=Terry|date=April 2017 |publisherjournal=Journal of Human Evolution |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.01.010 |pmid=28366196 |volume=105 |pages=1–12|bibcode=2017JHumE.105....1S }}</ref>

== Physical characteristics ==

The pliopithecoid fossil record mostly consists of teeth with a few mandibular and maxillary fragments.<ref name="Begun2002" /><ref name="Harrison2013" /> The dental formula (2.1.2.3) and shape of the teeth are the primary factors which include pliopithecoids among the [[catarrhini]]. Although some authors have argued that the narrow upper molars and broad upper molars of pliopithecoids demonstrate their affinity with modern catarrhines,<ref name="Harrison&Gu1999">{{cite journal|last1=Harrison|first1=Terry|last2=Gu|first2=Yumin|title=Taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships of early Miocene catarrhines frofrom Sihong, China|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|date=1999|volume=37|issue=2|pages=225–277|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004724849990310X|doi=10.1006/jhev.1999.0310|pmid=10444352|doi-access=free|bibcode=1999JHumE..37..225H }}</ref> others have demonstrated that these traits are variable between species.<ref name="Begun2002" /> In fact, pliopithecoids are more similar to [[New World monkey]]s in some aspects of their dentition, including narrow lower incisors (mesiodistally waisted towards the base of the crown).<ref name="Begun2002" /><ref name="Albaetal2010">{{cite journal|last1=Alba|first1=David|last2=Moyà-Solà|first2=Salvador|last3=Malgosa|first3=Assumpció|last4=Casanovas-Vilar|first4=Isaac|last5=Robles|first5=Josep|last6=Almécija|first6=Sergio|last7=Galindo|first7=Jordi|last8=Rotgers|first8=Cheyenn|last9=Bertó Mengual|first9=Juan Vicente|title=A new species of ''Pliopithecus'' Gervais, 1849 (Primates: Pliopithecoidea) from the Middle Miocene (MN8) of Abocador de Can Mata (els Hostalets de Pierola, Catalonia, Spain)|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|date=2010|issuevolume=141|issue=1|pages=52–75|doi=10.1002/ajpa.21114|pmid=19544577}}</ref> Many species have what is often referred to as a 'pliopithecine triangle', a subtle set of ridges defining a small triangular shaped pit between the protocone<!--aka protoconid cusp--> and hypocone<!--aka hypoconid cusp--> of the lower molars, but even this trait is variable.<ref name="Begun2002" /><ref name="Harrison1987" /> Instead, the most defining dental trait present in all pliopithecoids is a tall crowned lower third premolar, which is relatively triangular in outline with a comparatively short, vertically oriented mesiobucal face.<ref name="Begun2002" />

The crania of ''P. vindobonesis'', ''Laccopithecus robustus'', ''Pliopithecus zhanxiangi'', and ''Anapithecus hernyaki'' demonstrate that pliopithecoids had relatively large and globular braincases with a projecting snout.<ref name="Begun2002" /><ref name="Andrewsetal1996" /> The snout projects less than the propliopithecoids of North Africa (''i.e.'' ''[[Aegyptopithecus]]''), suggesting some prognathic reduction from the inferred common ancestor of these two primate families. The orbits are widely spaced and the mandible is long and robust, with a relatively broad ramus.<ref name="Begun2002" /> Most importantly, however, pliopithecoids had an incompletely ossified ectotympanic tube. This anatomical feature represents an intermediate stage between what is found in [[platyrrhines]], which do not have an ossified ectotympanic tube, and [[catarrhines]], which have a completely ossified ectoympanicectotympanic tube.<ref name="Begun2002" /><ref name="Harrison2013" /><ref name="Andrewsetal1996" />

Nearly all of what is known about the body proportions and post-cranial morphology of this family are derived from ''Pliopithecus vindobonensis'', as it is the only species for which a complete skeleton has been found.<ref name="Zapfe1958" /> Still, the majority of fossil material indicates that pliopithecoids were medium sized primates, approximately the size of a howler monkey or a gibbon (8&nbsp;kg).<ref name="Albaetal2012">{{cite journal|last1=Alba|first1=David|last2=Moyà-Solà|first2=Salvador|last3=Robles|first3=Josep M.|last4=Galindo|first4=Jordi|title=Brief Communication: The Oldest Pliopithecid Record in the Iberia Peninsula Based on New Material From the Vallès-Penedès Basin|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|date=2012|volume=147|issue=1|pages=135–140|doi=10.1002/ajpa.21631|pmid=22170401}}</ref> Köhler estaimesestimates a slightly higher average weight of 10 &nbsp;kg.<ref name="Kohler">< /ref> Post-cranially, pliopithecoids had an interesting mix of platyrrhine and catarrhine traits. The brachial index of ''P. vindobonesis'' (the length of the radius divided by the length of the humerus) is similar to that of a howler monkey, but the crural index (the length of the tibia divided by the length of the femur) is similar to that of a gibbon.<ref name="Begun2002" /> Proportionally, however, the forelimbs of ''P. vindobonesis'' were shorter than their hindlimbs, making them comparable to a baboon. The hands and feet of ''P. vindobonesis'' were long and curved, suggesting that pliopithecoids were adept and agile climbers.<ref name="Begun2002" /><ref name="Zapfe1958" /> The post-crania of ''P. vindobonesis'' also shows that Pliopithecoids had an entepicondylar foramen, which is a primitive trait not found in any other catarrhine primates (extant or extinct).<ref name="Begun2002" /><ref name="Harrison2013" /><ref name="Andrewsetal1996">{{cite book|last1=Andrews|first1=Peter|last2=Harrison|first2=Terry|last3=Delson|first3=Eric|last4=Bernor|first4=Raymond|last5=Martin|first5=L|title=Distribution and Biochronology of European and Southwest Asian Miocene Catarrhines|date=1996|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08246-0}}</ref> The wrist and hands of pliopithecoids were seemingly much more similar to platyrrhines than to catarrhines, as the carpo-metacarpal joint of the thumb is a modified “hinge joint” compared to the "saddle-like" thumb joint found in Old World monkeys and apes.<ref name="Harrison1987">{{cite journal|last1=Harrison|first1=Terry|title=The phylogenetic relationships of the early catarrhine primates: a review of the current evidence|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|date=1987|issuevolume=16|issue=1 |pages=41–80|doi=10.1016/0047-2484(87)90060-1|bibcode=1987JHumE..16...41H }}</ref> Pliopithecoids also had a tail.<ref name="Begun2002" /><ref name="Andrewsetal1996" />

== Classification ==

The following Classificationclassification scheme represents multiple sources.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

*Order [[Primate]]s (Linnaeus, 1758)

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*******''Pliopithecus piveteaui'' (Hürzeler, 1954){{efn|''P. piveteaui'' is considered a junior synonym of ''P. antiquus'' (Bergounioux and Crouzel, 1965; Harrison, 1991; Andrews et al., 1996), and as a distinct species by Begun (2002).}}

*******''Pliopithecus platydon'' (Biederman, 1863)

*******''Pliopithecus vindobonensis'' (Zapfe and Hürzeler, 1957){{efn|Originally named ''Epipliopithecus vindobonensis'' (Zapfe and Hürzeler, 1957), but Andrews et al. (1996) place this species within ''Pliopithecus''. Begun (2002) retains the original genus.}}

*******''Pliopithecus zhanxiangi'' (Harrison, Delson, and Guan, 1991)

*******''Pliopithecus bii'' (Yu, Jin, Jie 2003)

*******''Pliopithecus canmatensis'' (Alba, Moyá-Solá, Robles, Galindo, 2012)

******Genus ''[[Epipliopithecus]]'' (Zapfe and Hürzeler, 1957)

*******''[[Epipliopithecus vindobonensis]]'' (Zapfe and Hürzeler, 1957)

*****Subfamily [[Crouzeliinae]] (Ginsburg, 1975)

******Tribe [[Crouzeliini]] (Ginsburg, 1975)

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********''Anapithecus hernyaki'' (Kretzoi, 1975)

*******Genus ''[[Laccopithecus]]'' (Wu & Pan, 1984)

********''LaccopithecsLaccopithecus robustus'' (Wu and Pan, 1984)

*******Genus ''[[Barberapithecus]]'' (Alba and Moyá-Solá, 2012)

********''Barberapithecus huerzeleri'' (Alba and Moyá-Solá, 2012)

*******''[[Genus Egarapithecus]]'' (Moyá-Solá, Köhler, and Alba, 2001)

********''Egarapithecus narcisoi'' (Moyá-Solá, Köhler, and Alba, 2001)

*****''[[incertae sedis]]'' (undefined)

******Genus ''[[Paidopithex]]'' (Pohlig, 1895)

******Genus ''[[Krishnapithecus]]''

******Genus ''[[Kapi (mammal)|Kapi]]''<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Xueping |last1=Ji |first2=Terry |last2=Harrison |first3=Yingqi |last3=Zhang |first4=Yun |last4=Wu |first5=Chunxia |last5=Zhang |first6=Jinming |last6=Hu |first7=Dongdong |last7=Wu |first8=Yemao |last8=Hou |first9=Song |last9=Li |first10=Guofu |last10=Wang |first11=Zhenzhen |last11=Wang |title=The earliest hylobatid from the Late Miocene of China |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=171 |year=2022 |pages=103251|issn=0047-2484 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2022.103251|doi-access=free |pmid=36113226 |bibcode=2022JHumE.17103251J }}</ref>

Begun (2012 - A Companion To Paleoanthroplogy) divides Pliopithecoidea into two - Family [[Dionysopithecidae]] and Family [[Pliopithecidae]], with the [[Pliopithecidae]] sub-divided into [[Subfamily|Subfamilies]] [[Pliopithecinae]] and [[Crouzeliinae]].<ref name="Begun2012">{{cite book|last1=Begun|first1=David|title=A Companion To Paleoanthropology|date=2012|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|isbn=978-1-118-33237-5|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oIoT1RcFeCwC&pg=PT276&lpg=PT276}}</ref>

== Notes ==

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== References ==

{{reflistReflist|30em}}

{{Haplorhini|C.}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q10350553}}

[[Category:Pliopithecoidea| ]]

[[Category:Prehistoric primates]]

[[Category:Catarrhini]]

[[Category:Mammal superfamilies]]

[[Category:Miocene first appearances]]

[[Category:Miocene extinctions]]