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'''Tom Sims''' is a pioneer and world champion of [[snowboard]]ing, originally from [[Haddonfield, New Jersey|Haddonfield]], [[New Jersey]]. In 1963, he made what he called a the "skiboard," an early version of the snowboard, in the Haddonfield Middle School's shop room after failing to complete his intended project, a custom skateboard.<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/1998/0211/021198.feat.sports.1.html He was not the first person to do, there were many kids building a surfboard for the snow as well as even articles on surfers riding their surfboards in the snow in 1964A Man Who Helped Skiers Get on the Snowboard], ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', [[February 11]], [[1998]]</ref> Sims was the snowboarding stunt double for "007"(Roger Moore)in the 1984 James Bond release, A View to a Kill. He did not patent his invention. There is much dispute as to whether or not he is the inventor of the snowboard. Many industry publications, such as Transworld Snowboarding and various informational books, . Both Sims Snowboards and Burton Snowboards are very successful. In 2006 Sims Snowboards was bought out, and Tom Sims is no longer the owner. POWer magazine said that the buy out was "the end of Sims' run and now Burton was officially on top."
:''For the 1997 film, see [[Conspiracy Theory (film)]].''
{{POV-check}}
A '''conspiracy theory''' attempts to explain the ultimate cause of an event (usually a political, social, or historical event) as a [[secrecy|secret]], and often [[deception|deceptive]], plot by a [[covert]] alliance of powerful people or organizations rather than as an overt activity or as natural occurrence. Researchers who advocate the conspiratorial view claim that most major events in history have been dominated by conspirators who manipulate political happenings from behind the scenes.
The term "conspiracy theory" is usually used by mainstream scholars and in [[popular culture]] to identify a type of [[folklore]] similar to an [[urban legend]], especially an explanatory narrative which is constructed with methodological flaws.<ref>Johnson, 1983</ref> The term is also used [[pejorative]]ly to dismiss claims that are alleged by critics to be misconceived, paranoid, unfounded, outlandish, irrational, or otherwise unworthy of serious consideration. For example "Conspiracy nut" is used as a pejorative term. Some people who have their theory or speculation labeled a "conspiracy theory" reject the term as prejudicial.
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==Examples of common conspiracy theories==
{{main|List of conspiracy theories}}
* [[9/11 conspiracy theories]], usually relating the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] to US government officials.
* The [[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]], a conspiracy theory in which a powerful and secretive group plans to rule the world through a one-world government.
* [[John F. Kennedy assassination]] conspiracy theories, claiming the direct involvement of the US goverment in the assassination.
* [[Jew|Jewish]] or [[Zionism|Zionist]] [[List_of_conspiracy_theories#The_Jewish_world_domination_conspiracy_theory|global domination conspiracy theories]], perhaps the oldest common type of conspiracy theories, most notable of which is the [[Elders of Zion]] [[Anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] conspiracy theory (which was based on a fabricated document).
==Conspiracism==
When conspiracy theories combine logical fallacies with lack of evidence, the result is a world view known as conspiracism. Conspiracism is a world view that sees major historic events and trends as the result of secret conspiracies. The historian [[Richard Hofstadter]] addressed the role of [[paranoia]] and conspiracism throughout [[American history]] in his essay ''[[The Paranoid Style in American Politics]]'', published in [[1964]]. The term ''conspiracism'' was popularized by academic [[Frank P. Mintz]] in the [[1980s]]. Academic interest in conspiracy theories and conspiracism has presented a range of hypotheses on the basis of studying the genre. Among the leading scholars of conspiracism are: Hofstadter, Popper, Barkun, Goldberg, Pipes, Fenster, Mintz, Sagan, Johnson, and Posner.
According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes: "belief in the primacy of [[conspiracy|conspiracies]] in the unfolding of history" <ref>{{cite book
| last = Mintz
| first = Frank P.
| title = The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture
| origyear 1985=
| publisher = Greenwood
| ___location = Westport, CT
| id = ISBN 0-313-24393-X
| pages = 4
}}</ref>:
<blockquote>"Conspiracism serves the needs of diverse political and social groups in America and elsewhere. It identifies elites, blames them for economic and social catastrophes, and assumes that things will be better once popular action can remove them from positions of power. As such, conspiracy theories do not typify a particular epoch or ideology" <ref>{{cite book
| last = Mintz
| first = Frank P.
| title = The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture
| origyear 1985=
| publisher = Greenwood
| ___location = Westport, CT
| id = ISBN 0-313-24393-X
| pages = 199
}}</ref>.</blockquote>
Throughout human history, political and economic leaders genuinely ''have'' been the cause of enormous amounts of death and misery, and they sometimes have engaged in conspiracies while at the same time promoting conspiracy theories about their targets. [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] would be merely the most prominent examples; there have been numerous others <ref>{{cite book
| last = Arendt
| first = Hannah
| authorlink = Hannah Arendt
| title = The Origins of Totalitarianism
| origyear = 1953
| year = 1973
| publisher = Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
| ___location = New York
}}</ref>. In some cases there have been claims dismissed as conspiracy theories that later proved to have some basis in facts <ref>{{cite book
| last = Fenster
| first = Mark
| title = Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture
| origyear = 1999
| publisher = University of Minnesota Press
| ___location = Minneapolis
}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book
| last = Dean
| first = Jodi
| title = Aliens in America: Conspiracy Cultures from Outerspace to Cyberspace
| origyear = 1998
| publisher = Cornell University Press
| ___location = Ithaca, NY
}}</ref>. But the idea that history is controlled by grandiose or long-standing conspiracies is dubious. As historian Bruce Cumings has put it:
<blockquote>"But if conspiracies exist, they rarely move history; they make a difference at the margins from time to time, but with the unforeseen consequences of a logic outside the control of their authors: and this is what is wrong with 'conspiracy theory.' History is moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities." <ref>{{cite book
| last = Cumings
| first = Bruce
| title = The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. II, The Roaring of the Cataract, 1947-1950
| origyear = 1999
| publisher = Princeton University Press
| ___location = Princeton, NJ
}}</ref></blockquote>
The term has also been used by other authors including [[Michael Kelly (editor)|Michael Kelly]], [[Chip Berlet]], and Matthew N. Lyons, among others.
According to Berlet and Lyons, "Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for sounding the alarm" <ref>{{cite book
| last = Berlet
| first = Chip
| authorlink = Chip Berlet
| coauthors = Lyons, Matthew N.
| title = Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort
| origyear = 2000
| publisher = Guilford Press
| ___location = New York
}}</ref>.
==Proposed origins of conspiracy theories==
Humans naturally respond to events or situations which have had an emotional impact upon them by trying to make sense of those events, typically in spiritual, moral, political, or scientific terms.
Events which seem to resist such interpretation—for example, because they are, in fact, unexplainable—may provoke the inquirer to look harder for a meaning, until one is reached that is capable of offering the inquirer the required emotional satisfaction. As sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations for the origins of [[World War I]]:
:''Those events that are most important are hardest to understand, because they attract the greatest attention from mythmakers and charlatans.''
This normal process could be diverted by a number of influences. At the level of the individual, pressing psychological needs may influence the process, and certain of our universal mental tools may impose [[epistemology|epistemic]] 'blind spots'. At the group or sociological level, historic factors may make the process of assigning satisfactory meanings more or less problematic.
===Psychological origins===
According to many [[psychologist]]s, a person who believes in one conspiracy theory is often a believer in other conspiracy theories and conversely for a person who does not believe in one conspiracy theory there is a lower probability that he, or she, will believe in another one. <ref> {{cite journal
| author = Goertzel
| year = 1994
| month =
| title = '''Belief in Conspiracy Theories'''
| journal = Political Psychology
| volume = 15
| issue =
| pages = 733-744
| doi =
| id =
| url = http://www.crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/conspire.doc
| format =
| accessdate = August 7, 2006
}}</ref>
Psychologists believe that the search for meaningfulness features largely in conspiracism and the development of conspiracy theories. That desire alone may be powerful enough to lead to the initial formulation of the idea{{fact}}. Once cognized, [[confirmation bias]] and avoidance of [[cognitive dissonance]] may reinforce the belief. In a context where a conspiracy theory has become popular within a social group, [[communal reinforcement]] may equally play a part.
[[Evolutionary psychology]] may also play a significant role. Paranoid tendencies are associated with an animal's ability to recognize danger. Higher animals attempt to construct mental models of the thought processes of both rivals and predators in order to read their hidden intentions and to predict their future behavior. Such an ability is extremely valuable in sensing and avoiding danger in an animal community. If this danger-sensing ability should begin making false predictions, or be triggered by benign evidence, or otherwise become pathological, the result is paranoid delusions.
====Projection====
Some historians have pointed out the element of [[psychological projection]] in conspiracism; that is, the attribution to the supposed "conspirators" of undesirable characteristics of the self. [[Richard Hofstadter]], in his essay ''[[The Paranoid Style in American Politics]]'', stated that:
<blockquote>...it is hard to resist the conclusion that this enemy is on many counts the projection of the self; both the ideal and the unacceptable aspects of the self are attributed to him. The enemy may be the cosmopolitan intellectual, but the paranoid will outdo him in the apparatus of scholarship... the Ku Klux Klan imitated Catholicism to the point of donning priestly vestments, developing an elaborate ritual and an equally elaborate hierarchy. The John Birch Society emulates Communist cells and quasi-secret operation through "front" groups, and preaches a ruthless prosecution of the ideological war along lines very similar to those it finds in the Communist enemy. Spokesmen of the various fundamentalist anti-Communist "crusades" openly express their admiration for the dedication and discipline the Communist cause calls forth.</blockquote>
Hofstadter also noted that "sexual freedom" is a vice frequently attributed to the conspiracist's target group, noting that "very often the fantasies of true believers reveal strong sadomasochistic outlets, vividly expressed, for example, in the delight of anti-Masons with the cruelty of Masonic punishments."<ref>Hofstadter, Richard. The Paranoid Style in American Politics. Harper’s Magazine, November 1964, pp. 77-86.</ref>
====Epistemic bias?====
It is possible that certain basic human [[Epistemology|epistemic]] biases are projected onto the material under scrutiny. According to one study humans apply a 'rule of thumb' by which we expect a significant event to have a significant cause.<ref>"[http://www.bps.org.uk/media-centre/press-releases/releases$/annual-conferences-1999-2004/who-shot-the-president$.cfm Who shot the president?]," The British Psychological Society , March 18, 2003 (accessed June 7, 2005).</ref> The study offered subjects four versions of events, in which a foreign president was (a) successfully assassinated, (b) wounded but survived, (c) survived with wounds but died of a heart attack at a later date, and (d) was unharmed. Subjects were significantly more likely to suspect conspiracy in the case of the 'major events'—in which the president died—than in the other cases, despite all other evidence available to them being equal.
Another epistemic 'rule of thumb' that can be misapplied to a mystery involving other humans is [[cui bono]]? (who stands to gain?). This sensitivity to the hidden motives of other people might be either an evolved or an encultured feature of human consciousness, but either way it appears to be universal. If the inquirer lacks access to the relevant facts of the case, or if there are structural interests rather than personal motives involved, this method of inquiry will tend to produce a falsely conspiratorial account of an impersonal event{{fact}}. The direct corollary of this epistemic bias in pre-scientific cultures is the tendency to imagine the world in terms of [[animism]]. Inanimate objects or substances of significance to humans are [[Fetishism|fetishised]] and supposed to harbor benign or malignant spirits.
====Clinical psychology====
For relatively rare individuals, an obsessive compulsion to believe, prove or re-tell a conspiracy theory may indicate one or more of several well-understood psychological conditions, and other hypothetical ones: [[paranoia]], [[denial]], [[schizophrenia]], [[mean world syndrome]]<ref>"[http://www.columbia.edu/~kw96/TopFive.html#Anchor-Media-54000 Top 5 New Diseases: Media Induced Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (MIPTSD)]," ''The New Disease: A Journal of Narrative Pathology'' 2 (2004), (accessed June 7, 2005).</ref>.
===Socio-political origins===
[[Christopher Hitchens]] represents conspiracy theories as the 'exhaust fumes of democracy', the unavoidable result of a large amount of information circulating among a large number of people. Other social commentators and sociologists argue that conspiracy theories are produced according to variables that may change within a democratic (or other type of) society.
Conspiratorial accounts can be emotionally satisfying when they place events in a readily-understandable, moral context. The subscriber to the theory is able to assign moral responsibility for an emotionally troubling event or situation to a clearly-conceived group of individuals. Crucially, that group ''does not include'' the believer. The believer may then feel excused of any moral or political responsibility for remedying whatever institutional or societal flaw might be the actual source of the dissonance.<ref>{{cite news
|first = Shankar
|last = Vedantam
|url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/04/AR2006060400618.html
|title = Born With the Desire to Know the Unknown
|work = The Washington Post
|publisher = The Washington Post
|page = A02
|date = 2006-06-05
|accessdate = 2006-06-07
}}"Conspiracy theories explain disturbing events or social phenomena in terms of the actions of specific, powerful individuals," said sociologist Theodore Sasson at Middlebury College in Vermont. By providing simple explanations of distressing events -- the conspiracy theory in the Arab world, for example, that the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks were planned by the Israeli Mossad -- they deflect responsibility or keep people from acknowledging that tragic events sometimes happen inexplicably."</ref>
Where responsible behavior is prevented by social conditions, or is simply beyond the ability of an individual, the conspiracy theory facilitates the emotional discharge or [[closure (psychology)|closure]] that such emotional ''challenges'' (after [[Erving Goffman]]) require. Like [[moral panic]]s, conspiracy theories thus occur more frequently within communities that are experiencing [[alienation|social isolation]] or political dis-empowerment.
Mark Fenster argues that "just because overarching conspiracy theories are wrong does not mean they are not on to something. Specifically, they ideologically address real structural inequities, and constitute a response to a withering civil society and the concentration of the ownership of the means of production, which together leave the political subject without the ability to be recognized or to signify in the public realm" (1999: 67).
For example, the modern form of [[anti-Semitism]] is identified in Britannica 1911 as a conspiracy theory serving the self-understanding of the European [[aristocracy]], whose social power waned with the rise of [[bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] society.<ref>"[http://54.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AN/ANTI_SEMITISM.htm Anti-Semitism]," 1911 Online Encyclopedia, (accessed June 7, 2005).</ref>
====Disillusionment====
In the late 20th century, Western societies increasingly experienced a process of disengagement, disaffection, or disillusionment with traditional political institutions among their general populations. Falling election participation and declines in other key metrics of social engagement were noted by several observers. For a prominent example, see [[Robert Putnam|Robert D. Putnam's]] ''[[Bowling Alone]]'' thesis. Those who were most influenced by this period, the so-called "[[Generation X]]," are characterized by their [[cynicism]] towards traditional institutions and authorities, offering a case example of the context of political dis-empowerment detailed above.
In that context, a typical individual will tend to be more isolated from the kinds of peer networks that grant access to broad sources of information, and may instinctively distrust any statement or claim made by certain people, media, and other authority-bearing institutions. For some individuals, the consequence may be a tendency to attribute anything bad that happens to the distrusted authority. For example, some people attribute the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001]] attacks to a conspiracy involving the U.S. government (or disfavored politicians) instead of to [[Islamist terrorism|Islamic terrorists]] associated with [[Al-Qaeda]] (see [[9/11 conspiracy theories]].) Such charges may also be colored with political motivation. Similar charges (in some circles) were made that the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] administration was in some way culpable for the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] in 1941.
====Media tropes====
Media commentators regularly note a tendency in news media and wider culture to understand events through the prism of individual agents, as opposed to more complex structural or institutional accounts.<ref>Ivan Emke, "[http://www.cjc-online.ca/viewarticle.php?id=585&layout=html Agents and Structures: Journalists and the Constraints on AIDS Coverage]," ''Canadian Journal of Communication'' 25, no. 3 (2000), (accessed June 7, 2005).</ref> If this is a true observation, it may be expected that the audience which both demands and consumes this emphasis itself is more receptive to personalized, [[drama]]tic accounts of social phenomena.
A second, perhaps related, media trope is the effort to allocate individual responsibility for negative events. The media have a tendency to start to seek culprits if an event occurs that is of such significance that it does not drop off the news agenda within a few days. Of this trend, it has been said that the concept of a pure accident is no longer permitted in a news item [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4217024.stm]. Again, if this is a true observation, it may reflect a real change in how the media consumer perceives negative events.
A particularly political individual or group may respond skeptically or cynically towards an event or process that does not fit with his or its existing world-view. For example, a [[neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]], or an anti-Israeli organization such as [[Hezbollah]], might promote claims of Jewish involvement in [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] in order to incorporate that event into its own political narrative in a manner compatible to meeting its own ends, likewise pro-Israel or Zionist organizations might also promote claims of deeply rooted anti-semitic involvement in any given opposition towards the policies of the state of Israel.
==Controversies==
Aside from [[controversies]] over the merits of particular conspiracy claims (see [[#Conspiracy theories by topic or main figure|catalog]] below), and the various differing academic opinions (above), the general category of conspiracy theory is ''itself'' a matter of some public contestation.
===Usage===
The term "conspiracy theory" is considered by different observers to be a neutral description for a conspiracy claim, a pejorative term used to dismiss such a claim, and a term that can be positively embraced by proponents of such a claim. The term may be used by some for arguments they might not wholly believe but consider radical and exciting. The most widely accepted sense of the term is that which popular culture and academic usage share, certainly having negative implications for a narrative's probable truth value.
Given this popular understanding of the term, it is conceivable that the term might be used illegitimately and inappropriately, as a means to dismiss what are in fact substantial and well-evidenced accusations. The legitimacy of each such usage will therefore be a matter of some controversy. Disinterested observers will compare an allegation's features with those of the category listed above, in order to determine whether a given usage is legitimate or prejudicial.
Certain proponents of conspiracy claims and their supporters argue that the term is entirely illegitimate, and should be considered just as politically manipulative as the Soviet practice of treating political dissidents as clinically insane. The term ''conspiracy theory'' is itself the object of a type of conspiracy theory, which argues that those using the term are manipulating their audience to disregard the topic under discussion, either in a deliberate attempt to conceal the truth, or as dupes of more deliberate conspirators.
When conspiracy theories are offered as official claims (e.g. originating from a governmental authority, such as an intelligence agency) they are not usually considered as conspiracy theories. For example, certain activities of the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] may be considered to have been an official attempt to promote a conspiracy theory, yet its claims are seldom referred to as such.
===The truth of a conspiracy theory===
Perhaps the most contentious aspect of a conspiracy theory is the problem of settling a particular theory's truth to the satisfaction of both its proponents and its opponents. Particular accusations of conspiracy vary widely in their plausibility, but some common standards for assessing their likely truth value may be applied in each case:
* [[Occam's razor]] - is the alternative story more, or less, probable than the mainstream story? Rules of thumb here include the [[multiplication of entities]] test.
* [[Methodology]] - are the "proofs" offered for the argument well constructed, i.e., using sound methodology? Is there any clear standard to determine what evidence would prove or disprove the theory?
* [[Whistleblower]]s - how many people—and what kind—have to be loyal conspirators?
Each of these tests can have its downsides as well. For instance, overeager application of "Occam's razor" can lead to acceptance of ''over''simplified views of history.
An earlier version of this article also proposed the following as one criterion for assessing whether an allegation of conspiracy is likely to be true:
* [[Psychology]] - does the conspiracy accusation satisfy an identifiable psychological [[#Psychology of conspiracy theory|need]] for its proposer?
It has been well established, however, that "attacking the character or motives of a person who has stated an idea, rather than the idea itself," constitutes the logical fallacy known as [[ad hominem|argumentum ad hominem]].<ref>See the entry on "argumentum ad hominem" at [http://www.csun.edu/~dgw61315/fallacies.html Logical Fallacies and the Art of Debate], maintained by Professor Glen Whitman of California State University.</ref>
====Real conspiracies====
On some occasions particular conspiracy allegations turn out to be readily verifiable, as in the French government's attempted cover-up following [[Émile Zola|Emile Zola's]] accusations in the [[Dreyfus Affair]], or in the efforts by the Tsar's secret police to foment anti-Semitism by presenting [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]] as an authentic text <ref>{{cite web | year = 2004 | url = http://www.hoover.org/hila/judaica3.htm | title = Jews and Politics in the Twentieth Century: From the Bund to the Rise of the Nazis | work = Judaica in the Collections of the Hoover Institution Archives | publisher = Hoover Institution, Stanford University | accessdate = 2006-04-28}}
</ref>. Where such success is due to sound investigative methodology, it is clear that it would not exhibit many of the compromising [[#Features|features]] identified as characteristic of conspiracy theory, and would thus not commonly be considered a 'Conspiracy theory'. In the case of the 1971 revelation of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI's]] [[COINTELPRO]] counter-intelligence work against domestic political activists, it is not clear to what extent a 'conspiracy theory' involving government agents was either proposed or dismissed prior to the programme's factual exposure.
Some argue that the reality of such conspiracies should caution against any casual dismissal of conspiracy theory. Many "conspiracy theory" authors and publishers, such as [[Robert Anton Wilson]] and [[Disinfo]], use proven conspiracies as evidence of what a secret plot can accomplish. In doing so, they attempt to rebut the assumption that conspiracies don't exist, or that any "conspiracy theory" is necessarily false. A number of true or possibly true conspiracies are cited in making this case; the [[Mafia]], the [[Business Plot]], [[Project MKULTRA|MKULTRA]], various CIA involvements in overseas [[coup d'état|coups d'état]], [[Operation Northwoods]], the 1991 Testimony of [[Nayirah]] before the US Congress, the [[Tuskegee Syphilis Study|Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male]], the [[General Motors streetcar conspiracy]] and the [[Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge debate]], among others.
The argument is often advanced that the non-existence of any given conspiracy is shown by the lack of leakers or whistleblowers. Given the success of the British government in getting thousands of people to keep the [[ULTRA]] secret — and thereby ensuring that no reliable history of [[World War Two]] could be published until the 1970s — it is apparent that this is not necessarily a reliable indicator.
====Falsifiability====
Philosopher [[Karl Popper]] proposed the term, "the conspiracy theory of society" to criticize the methodology of Marx, Hitler and others whom he deemed to be deluded by "historicism" - the reduction of history to an overt and naive distortion via a crude formulaic analysis usually predicated on an agenda replete with unsound presuppositions.
Karl Popper argued that [[science]] is written as a set of [[falsifiability|falsifiable]] [[hypothesis|hypotheses]]; [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] or unscientific theories and claims are those which do not admit any possibility for falsification. Critics of conspiracy theories sometimes argue that many of them are not falsifiable and so cannot be scientific. This accusation is often accurate, and is a necessary consequence of the logical structure of certain kinds of conspiracy theories. These take the form of uncircumscribed [[existential quantification|existential statements]], alleging the ''existence'' of some action or object without specifying the ''place or time'' at which it can be observed. Failure to observe the phenomenon can then always be the result of looking in the wrong place or looking at the wrong time — that is, having been duped by the conspiracy. This makes impossible any demonstration that the conspiracy does not exist.
<!-- citation for the following requested 1 Apr 06 -->In response to this objection to conspiracy theories, some argue that ''no'' political or historical theory can be scientific by Popper's criterion because none reliably generate testable predictions.{{citation needed}} In fact, Popper himself rejected the claims of [[Marxism]] and [[psychoanalysis]] to scientific status on precisely this basis. This does not necessarily mean that either conspiracy theory, Marxism, or psychoanalysis are baseless, irrational, and false; it ''does'' suggest that if they are false there is no way to prove it.
Falsifiability has been widely criticised for misrepresenting the actual process of scientific discovery by a number of scholars, notably [[paradigm]] theorists and Popper's former students [[Thomas Kuhn]], [[Paul Feyerabend]], and [[Imre Lakatos]]. Within [[epistemology|epistemological]] circles, falsifiability is not now considered a tenable criterion for determining scientific status, although it remains popular. Most [[Philosophy of science#Grounds of validity of scientific reasoning|philosophers of science]] continue to maintain that there are some rationaly justifiable methodological premises, in terms of which some theories can be criticized, while they reject the idea that falsifiability alone is a sufficient criterion.
== Popper's introduction of the term, "conspiracy theory" ==
In his two volume work, ''The Open Society & Its Enemies, 1938–1943'' Popper introduced the term "conspiracy theory" to criticize the ideologies driving [[fascism]], [[Nazism]] and [[communism]]. Popper argued that totalitarianism was founded on "conspiracy theories" which drew on imaginary plots driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on tribalism, racism or classism. Popper did not argue against the existence of everyday conspiracies (as incorrectly suggested in much of the later literature). Popper even uses the term "conspiracy" to describe ordinary political activity in the [[History of Athens|classical Athens]] of [[Plato]] (who was the principal target of his attack in ''The Open Society & Its Enemies'').
In his critique of Marx and the twentieth century totalitarians, Popper wrote, "I do not wish to imply that conspiracies never happen. On the contrary, they are typical social phenomena."[http://lachlan.bluehaze.com.au/books/popper_open_society.html ]
He reiterated his point, "Conspiracies occur, it must be admitted. But the striking fact which, in spite of their occurrence, disproved the conspiracy theory is that few of these conspiracies are ultimately successful. Conspirators rarely consummate their conspiracy." [http://lachlan.bluehaze.com.au/books/popper_open_society.html] It is possible that Popper may have developed his attitude to the problematic execution of successful conspiracies from his reading of Machiavelli, who stated in ''The Discourses'' that conspiracies rarely achieve their objectives.
==Conspiracy theories in fiction==
''Main article'': [[Conspiracy theories (fictional)]]
Because of their dramatic potential, conspiracies are a popular theme in [[thriller]]s and [[science fiction]]. Complex history is recast as a [[morality play]] in which bad people cause bad events, and good people identify and defeat them. Fictional conspiracy theories offer neat, intuitive narratives, in which the conspirators' plot fits closely the dramatic needs of the story's plot. As mentioned above, the ''cui bono?'' aspect of conspiracy theories resembles one element of mystery stories: the search for a possibly hidden motive.
''[[Conspiracy Theory (film)|Conspiracy Theory]]'' is a 1997 thriller about a taxi driver (played by Mel Gibson) who publishes a newsletter in which he discusses what he suspects are government conspiracies, and it turns out that one of them is true.
''[[The X-Files]]'' was a popular television show during the 1990s, which followed the investigations of two intrepid FBI agents, [[Fox Mulder]] and [[Dana Scully]]. Many of the episodes dealt with a plot for alien invasion overseen by elements of the [[United States|U.S.]] government led by the mysterious individual known only as the [[Cigarette Smoking Man]]. The famous tag line of the series, "The Truth Is Out There", can be interpreted as reference to the meaning-seeking nature of the genre [[Conspiracy theory#Psychological origins|discussed above]].
On the cartoon series ''[[King of the Hill]]'' the character [[Dale Gribble]] is the stereotype of a conspiracy theory-obsessed American. Dale believes just about any conspiracy theory, from aliens to Bigfoot to the JFK assassination to faked moon landings. His behavior, language, and mannerisms are all [[cliché]]s of conspiracism: he is often anti-social, sullen, aggressive, and egotistical.
[[Umberto Eco]]'s novel ''[[Foucault's Pendulum]]'' is a broad satire on conspiracism in which the characters attempt to construct an all-embracing conspiracy theory starting with the [[Templar (disambiguation)|Templars]] and including the [[Bavarian Illuminati]], the [[Rosicrucian]]s, [[hollow Earth]] enthusiasts, the [[Cathar]]s, and even the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]]. [[The Da Vinci Code]] by [[Dan Brown]] explores a similar theme, without the satire and with religion as its focus: a conspiracy by the Catholic Church has attempted to cover up the "true" story of Jesus.
A recent fiction genre is the [[conspiracy novel]], including works like [[James Ellroy]]'s pulpish retelling of the Kennedy Assassination in [[American Tabloid]], and the more serious novels of [[Thomas Pynchon]].
The on-going TV series [[Stargate SG-1]] ties together many conspiracy theories.
==Notes==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>
In 1980-81 Tom Sims setup a design skunkworks in a rented barn located in the Santa Barbara,His friend Chuck Barfoot was the guy who actually built Tom's designs as well as building his own designs. they started selling their models as Sims SKiboards and Barfoot Snoboards in the first Sims advertisement in 1980, in 1981 Barfoot split from Sims and has been building snowboards under his name ever since..
==References==
<references/>
* American Heritage Dictionary, "Conspiracy theory"
* Barkun, Michael. 2003. ''A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America''. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23805-2
* Chase, Alston. 2003. ''Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-02002-9
* Fenster, Mark. 1999. ''Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture''. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3243-X
* Goldberg, Robert Alan. 2001. ''Enemies Within: The Culture of Conspiracy in Modern America''. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09000-5
* Hofstadter, Richard. 1965. ''The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-674-65461-7
*{{cite book
| last = Johnson
| first = George
| year = 1983
| title = Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics
| publisher = Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc.
| ___location = Los Angeles
| id = ISBN 0-87477-275-3
}}
* Melley, Timothy. 1999. ''Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8606-8
* Mintz, Frank P. 1985. ''The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture''. Westport, CT: Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-24393-X
* Pipes, Daniel. 1997. ''Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes from''. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-87111-4
* ---. 1998. ''The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy''. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17688-0
* Popper, Karl R. 1945. ''The Open Society and Its Enemies''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01968-1
* Posner, Gerald. 1993. ''Case Closed: Lee Harvey Oswald and the Assassination of JFK''. New York: The Random House. ISBN 0-385-47446-6
* Sagan, Carl. 1996. ''The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark''. New York: The Random House. ISBN 0-394-53512-X
* Vankin, Jonathan, and John Whalen. 2004. ''The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time''. New York: Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-2531-2
==Further reading==
*[http://www.publiceye.org/tooclose/conspiracism.html Conspiracism], Political Research Associates
*{{cite web
| last = Cziesche
| first = Dominik
| coauthors = Jürgen Dahlkamp, Ulrich Fichtner, Ulrich Jaeger, Gunther Latsch, Gisela Leske, Max F. Ruppert
| year = 2003
| url = http://service.spiegel.de/cache/international/spiegel/0,1518,265160,00.html
| title = Panoply of the Absurd
| work = Der Spiegel
| publisher = Der Spiegel
| accessdate = 2006-06-06
}}
*{{cite web |last = Parsons |first = Charlotte |year = 2001 |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1561199.stm |title = Why we need conspiracy theories |work = BBC News - Americas |publisher = BBC |accessdate = 2006-06-26}}
===Conspiracist literature===
*[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]
*{{cite book | last = Bryan | first = Gerald B. | coauthors = Talita Paolini, Kenneth Paolini | authorlink = "I Am" Activity | title = Psychic Dictatorship in America | year = 2000 | origyear = 1940 | publisher = Paolini International LLC | id = ISBN 0-9666213-1-X}}
*{{cite book | last = Pelley | first = William Dudley | authorlink = William Dudley Pelley | title = Star Guests:Design for Mortality | year = 1950 | publisher = Soulcraft Press | ___location = Noblesville, Indiana}}
*{{cite book | last = Robertson | first = Pat | authorlink = Pat Robertson | title = The New World Order | year = 1992 | publisher = W Publishing Group | id = ISBN 0-8499-3394-3}}
*{{cite book | last = Marrs | first = Texe | authorlink = Texe Marrs | title = Project L.U.C.I.D.: The Beast 666 Universal Human Control System | year = 1996 | publisher = Living Truth Publishers | id = ISBN 1-884302-02-5}}
*{{cite book | last = Cooper | first = Milton William | authorlink = William Milton Cooper | title = Behold a Pale Horse | year = 1991 | publisher = Light Technology Publications | id = ISBN 0-929385-22-5}}
*{{cite book | last = Icke | first = David | authorlink = David Icke | title = And the Truth Shall Set You Free: The 21st Century Edition | year = 2004 | publisher = Bridge of Love | id = ISBN 0-9538810-5-9}}
* McConnachie, James, and Robin Tudge. 2005. ''The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories''. London: Rough Guides. ISBN 1-84353-445-2
* Wilson, Robert Anton. 2002. ''TSOG: The Thing That Ate the Constitution'', Tempe, AZ: New Falcon Publications. ISBN 1-56184-169-2
* York, Byron. 2005. ''The Vast Left Wing Conspiracy: The Untold Story of How Democratic Operatives, Eccentric Billionaires, Liberal Activists, and Assorted Celebrities Tried to Bring Down a President - and Why They'll Try Even Harder Next Time'', New York, Crown Forum. ISBN 1-4000-8238-2
==See also==
===Concepts===
* [[Apophenia]]
* [[Cabal]]
* [[Clustering illusion]]
* [[Hanlon's Razor|Cock-up theory]]
* [[Coincidence theory]]
* [[Conspiracy theories (fictional)]]
* [[Conspiracy (crime)|Conspiracy in criminal law]]
* [[:Category:Conspiracy theorists]]
* [[List of alleged conspiracy theories]]
* [[Paranoia]]
* [[Paranoia (magazine)]]
* ''[[The Paranoid Style in American Politics]]''
* [[List of proven conspiracies|Proven conspiracies]]
===Repeat sources of conspiracy allegations===
* [[Jack Chick]]
* [[James Shelby Downard]]
* [[David Emory]]
* [[Myron C. Fagan]]
* [[Louis Farrakhan]]
* [[Juhan af Grann]]
* [[David Ray Griffin]]
* [[G. Edward Griffin]]
* [[Anthony J. Hilder]]
* [[Stanley Hilton]]
* [[Michael A. Hoffman II]]
* [[David Icke]]
* [[Alex Jones (radio)]]
* [[Tim LaHaye]]
* [[Lyndon LaRouche]]
* [[Rauni-Leena Luukanen-Kilde]]
* [[Jordan Maxwell]]
* [[Thierry Meyssan]]
* [[Robert Parry]]
* [[Roberto Pinotti]]
* [[John Birch Society]]
* [[Liberty Lobby]] (defunct)
* [[Paranoia (magazine)]]
==External links==
*[http://www.simsnow.com/ Sims Snowboards]
*[http://www.ideas21.co.uk/177 Ideas: The Snowboard]
*[http://www.frqncy.com/index.php?issue=14 Tom Sims Interview in Frequency Snowboard Journal]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sims, Tom}}
* [http://www.Coverups.com Coverups.com - The Index of Great Cover-Ups]
* [http://www.conspiracyarchive.com Conspiracy Archive]
* [http://www.upi.com/inc/view.php?StoryID=10042002-101612-2060r "The Economics of Conspiracy Theories"], [[United Press International]], April 10, 2002
* [http://www.cool.com.au/general-news/observations/conspiracy-theory-definition-20060106132 Conspiracy Theories Overview]
* [http://www.geocities.com/johnfkosanke/occult.htm The Occult Technology of Power] The mechanics of institutionalized conspiracy
* [http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1116/p09s01-coop.htm On the hunt for a conspiracy theory], ''CS Monitor'' article
* [http://www.clydelewis.com Ground Zero with Clyde Lewis]
* [http://www.conspiracybomb.com/azconspiracy.htm The A-Z of Conspiracy Theories]
* [http://www.globalresearch.ca/ Centre for Research on Globalization]
* [http://www.davidicke.com/icke/temp/reptconn.html The Reptilian Connection — David Icke]
* [http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum Above Top Secret:] The internet's largest conspiracy discussion forum
* [http://www.nwowatcher.com NWOWatcher]
* [http://fnord.wikicities.com/ The Conspiracy Wiki]
* [http://tinwiki.org/ The TinWiki] A Conspiracy Theory Wikipedia
* [http://www.alternet.org/story.html?StoryID=14873 Top Ten Conspiracy Theories of 2002], from AlterNet.
*[http://www.threeworldwars.com/intro.htm An Introduction to Conspiratorial History]
* Hutchinson, Martin, "'' [http://www.upi.com/view.cfm?StoryID=20031006-060121-9328r The Bear's Lair: The new Cold War]''", [[UPI]]
* [http://verschwoerungen.info/wiki/Liste_der_Essays Essays about Conspiration theories (in German)]
* [http://www.timboucher.com/journal/2005/07/24/an-integral-approach-to-conspiracy-theory/ An Integral Approach to Conspiracy Theory]
* [http://verschwoerungen.info/wiki/Liste_der_Verschwrungen Interesting collection of conspiracy theories (in German)]
* [http://www.alienview.net/conspire.html Sociopathy & Conspiracy] (...Conspiracy Likely As A Result Of Sociopathy?)
* [http://www.lobster-magazine.co.uk/articles/l29consp.htm 'Conspiracy Theories' and Clandestine Politics] by Jeffrey M. Bale in ''Lobster Magazine''
*[http://home.pacbell.net/butlerc/Conspiracy/conspiracy.html "On Being a Conspiracy Theorist"] by Butler Crittenden, Ph.D.
* [http://www.counciloftruth.com The Council Of Truth] an open conspiracy discussion community.
* [http://all-embracing.episto.org All Embracing but Underwhelming] A philosophical discussion on Conspiracy Theory
===Links critical of conspiracism===
*‘[http://www.nationalism.org/patranoia/hofstadter-paranoid-style.htm The Paranoid Style in American Politics]’ [[Richard Hofstadter]], <cite>Harper's</cite> [[1964]] November
* [http://skepdic.com/illuminati.html Skeptic's Dictionary on conspiracy theories]
* [http://www.conspiracy-theories-hoax.com/ Popular Conspiracy Theories] (Balanced but skeptical view of popular conspiracy theories)
* [http://www.publiceye.org/tooclose/conspiracism.html The Dynamics of Conspiracism] (site critical of conspiracy theories that scapegoat)
* [http://www.amirbutler.com/archives/2002/11/15/12 Amir Butler: Our Credibility Problem is a Conspiracy] (A discussion of the spread of conspiracy theories in the Muslim community)
* [http://www.urban75.org/info/conspiraloons.html 10 Characteristics of Conspiracy Theorists] (Tips for recognizing conspiracists in electronic discussion fora)
*[http://www.publiceye.org/top_conspire.html "Conspiracism as a Flawed Worldview"] by Chip Berlet
*[http://www.crank.net "Crank Net a compendium of cranks and questionable theories"]
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