Papal tiara and Abdel-Hamid ibn Badis: Difference between pages

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The '''Papal Tiara''', also known as the '''Triple Tiara''', in [[Latin]] as the ''''Triregnum'''', or in [[Italian language|Italian]] as the ''''Triregno'''',{{ref|Triregno}} is the three-tiered [[Gemstone|jewelled]] papal crown of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Persian Empire|Persian]] origin that is the symbol of the papacy. Papal Tiaras were worn by all [[pope]]s from [[Pope Clement V]] to [[Pope Paul VI]], who was [[Papal Coronation|crowned]] in [[1963]]. Though Pope Paul VI abandoned the use of his own tiara during the [[Second Vatican Council]], symbolically laying it on the [[altar]] of [[St. Peter's Basilica]], he did not abolish its use, explicitly requiring in his [[1975]] [[Apostolic Constitution]] ''[[Romano Pontifici Eligendo]]'' that his successor be crowned.

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|name = '''Albelhamid Ben Badis''' <br />([[Arabic]]:عبد الحميد بن باديس)

|birth = [[December 4]], [[1889]]

|death = [[April 16]], [[1940]]

|school_tradition = Islamic philosophy

|main_interests =

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'''Albelhamid Ben Badis''' ([[Arabic]]:عبد الحميد بن باديس;Also: ''Ben Badis'') was born on [[December 4]], [[1889]] at 16:00. His birth was recorded the following day, Thursday [[December 5]], 1889, at the register of births, marriages and deaths in [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], a city in the North-East of [[Algeria]]. Sheikh Ben Badis was an emblematic figure of the Islamic Reform movement in Algeria. Albelhamid Ben Badis was of an old town middle-class family which claimed descent from the [[Zirid]]s a [[Berber]] Muslim dynasty founded in the 10th Century by [[Bologhine ibn Ziri]].

In 1931 Ben Badis founded the Association of Muslim Algerian [[Ulema]]. This was a national grouping of many Islamic scholars in Algeria from many different and sometimes opposing perspectives and viewpoints. The Association would be a great influence On Algerian Muslim Politics up to the Algerian War of Independence. In the same period it set up many institutions where thousands of Algerian Muslim children were Educated. The association also published a monthly magazine, the Al-Chihab and and Ben Badis contributed regularly to it between [[1925]] and his death in [[1940]]. The magazine informed its readers of the associations ideas and thoughts on religious reform and spoke on other religious and political issues. Ben Badis passed away on [[April 16]], [[1940]] in Constantine.

However, his immediate successor, [[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]], refused to be crowned, and [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]], who also declined a coronation, told the congregation at his [[Papal Inauguration|Papal Inauguration Mass]], immediately after John Paul I's sudden death, that it was "not the time" to be crowned, while disputing the claim by critics of the tiara that it represented a papal claim to [[temporal power]].{{ref|homily}}

== Biography ==

[[Image:Triregno.jpg|150px|left|thumb|18th century Papal Tiara, the oldest surviving tiara in the papal collection.]]

=== Education ===

Ben Badis grew up in a scholarly and religious household and as a result memorized the [[Quran]] at the age of thirteen.

Though not currently used as part of papal regalia, the continuing symbolism of the papal tiara is reflected in its use on the flag and [[Heraldry|coats of arms]] of the [[Holy See]] and the [[Vatican City|Vatican]]. For a millennium until the reign of [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]] it had been one of the ornaments surrounding a Pope's personal coat of arms. In a controversial break with tradition, on the first version of [[Coat of arms of Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict's personal coat of arms]] the tiara was replaced with the papal [[mitre]]. The mitre contains three levels reminiscent of the three tiers on the papal tiara.{{Ref|arms}} This was the first such use since Pope Paul VI prohibited the use of mitres and [[Crosier|croziers]] on coats of arms in [[1969]].{{ref|crozier}} However the Vatican subsequently issued documents which contained Benedict's coat of arms showing a tiara, not a mitre. It is unclear whether the initial arms announced have been withdrawn, or whether it is proposed to use two alternate designs, a "personal" set of arms with a mitre, and an official "state" set of arms for Benedict with a tiara.

He was still very young when he was placed under the tutorship of Hamdan Lounissi. Lounissi was a significant influence on the youth of Ben Badis. Ben Badis never forgot Lounissi's counsel. Lounissi remarked to him "science for the love learns from science, not for the duty." Lounissi was a stalwart defender of the rights of the Muslim Inhabitants of Constantine. Lounissi extracted from the youth Ben Badis a promise to never enter into the service of France (the Colonial Power in Algeria).

[[Pope John Paul II]]'s [[1996]] Apostolic Constitution ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]'' leaves it to individual future popes to decide whether they wish to have a traditional [[Papal Coronation]] or a more informal [[Papal Inauguration]]. The current pope, [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]] controversially opted to be [[inauguration|inaugurated]] in [[2005]] using a [[Papal Inauguration|Papal Inauguration Mass]] rather than a [[Papal Coronation]], producing some criticism from conservative [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] who expected, given his conservative past and criticism of the abandonment of Latin in church ritual, that he would reinstate the traditional use of the papal tiara.<br clear="all" />

==Not justPilgrimages one& study tiara==

=== At the Zeitouna University ===

''Article: [[List of papal tiaras in existence]]''

In 1908, Ben Badis, decided to begin his first voyage in order to advance his learning. He traveled to Tunis and therein the Zeitouna University. This was, at the time, a great center of learning and knowledge, particularly in the Islamic fields of studies.

[[image:Paul VI 4.jpg|thumb|left|Pope Paul VI (1963-1978) wearing his Papal Tiara.]]

At the Zietouna University Ben Badis horizons increased. He learned a great deal of the Islamic Sciences and Arabic Language. He met many Academics who left an indelible mark on his personality and his viewpoint on Islam. The teachings of Sheikh Mohammed Al-Nakhli were to convince him further of the [[Salafi]] or [[Wahabi]] ideas which were sweeping the Islamic world at the time and the need to purge Muslim communities of deviant or incorrect religious practises such as the saint cult. Sheikh Mohammed Al-Taher Ben Achour influenced Ben Badis in finding his appreciation of the splendor of the Arabic Language. Under Sheikh Al-Bachir Safer Ben Badis's interest developed in the contemporary and past problems of the Muslim Communities including finding a response to Western colonialism and dealing with its socio-economic after-effects.

Though people often talk about '''the''' Papal Tiara, in fact there were many. Unfortunately many of the earlier priceless papal tiaras (most notably the tiaras of [[Pope Julius II]]{{ref|JuliusII}} and that attributed to [[Pope Silvester I|Pope Saint Silvester]]) were destroyed, dismantled or seized by invaders (most notably by [[Louis Alexandre Berthier|Berthier's]] army in [[1798]]), or by popes themselves; [[Pope Clement VII]] had all the tiaras and papal regalia melted down in [[1527]] to raise the 400,000 ducats ransom demanded by the occupying army of [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. Over twenty silver triregnos exist, of which the earliest, the sole survivor of 1798, was made for [[Pope Gregory XIII]] in the sixteenth century. Because Rome was in the hands of the French, [[Pope Pius VII|Pius VII]] was crowned in exile, in [[Venice]], with a [[papier-mâché]] tiara, for which ladies of Venice gave up their jewels.

In 1912 he obtained his diploma. He stayed on at the university for a further year teaching.

Many tiaras were donated to the papacy by world leaders or states, including Queen [[Isabella II of Spain]], Kaiser [[Wilhelm I of Germany]], Emperor [[Franz Joseph I of Austria]] and [[Napoleon I of France]]. The tiara provided by the latter was made from elements of former papal tiaras destroyed after the capture of Rome, and was given to Pius VII as a 'wedding gift' to mark Napoleon's own marriage to [[Joséphine de Beauharnais|Empress Josephine]] on the eve of his imperial coronation. Others were provided to a newly elected pope by the See which they had held prior to their election, or to commemorate their jubilees, whether of their [[ordination]], [[Episcopalian church governance|episcopal appointment]] or length of [[reign]].

=== In Madinah ===

[[Image:Flag_of_Vatican_City.png|140px|thumb|Flag of Vatican City, showing the papal arms containing a tiara]]

Ben Badis then emabarked on his pilgrimage or [[Hajj]] in [[Makkah]] and [[Madinah]] Ben Badis stayed on in [[Madinah]] for threee months and commenced a giving lessons to pilgrims and residents in the Prophets mosque, [[Al-Masjid al-Nabawi]].

In some instances, various cities sought to outdo each other in the beauty, value and size of the tiaras they provided for "their" pope. Examples include ''triregni'' given to Popes John XXIII and Paul VI, the former by John's home region, the latter by Paul's previous See of [[Milan]] on their election to the papacy.

In Madinah Ben Badis encountered Muslim Reformist Sheikh Bachir Al Ibrahimi. They would regularly meet in order to formulate a clear plan for reform of [[Islam in Algeria]]. This was the start of a long friendship which spurred the Islamic Reform movement In Algeria into a position of prominence and influence. Another Reformist Sheikh Hussein Ahmed Al-Hindi also residing at Madinah was impressed by Ben Badis ability and knowledge. He urged Ben Badis to move permanently to Algeria and work against the ills of [[Maraboutic]] ideas, ignorance in Islamic Knowledge and against cultural and religious decline in the Muslim population of Algeria under French occupation.

Nor was a pope restricted to wearing just one tiara: Pope John XXIII, for example, was photographed on different occasions wearing his own tiara presented in [[1959]], [[Pope Pius IX|Pope Pius IX's]] [[1877]] tiara, or Pope Pius XI's [[1922]] tiara.

After his departure Ben Badis visited Syria and Egypt. At the [[Al-Azhar Mosque]] in [[Cairo]] he met with renowned academics of Literature and Islamic sciences.

Pope Paul VI, whose bullet-shaped tiara is one of the most unusual in design, was the latest pope to wear a triple tiara; although any of his successors could reinstate the coronation ceremony or wear one of the tiaras. Most surviving tiaras are on display in the Vatican, though some were sold off or donated to Catholic bodies. In recent times some of the more popular or historic tiaras, such as the [[1871]] Belgian tiara, the 1877 tiara and the [[1903]] golden tiara have been sent around the world as part of a display of historic Vatican items.

==Shape= ofReturn theto TripleAlgeria Tiara===

In 1913 Ben Badis returned to Algeria and settled in Constantine. He commenced teaching at the Sidi Qammouch mosque. The courses were for men, women, children and adults. He gave people instruction in Islamic sciences, Arabic Language and literature and history. It was at this point that Ben Badis concieved the idea of establishing a Muslim organization of religious scholars and leaders.

''Main article: [[Decoration of the Papal Tiara]]''

In 1936, Ben Badis played a role in the founding of the "Algerian Muslim Congress" (CMA). This congress was disbanded the following year in the summer of 1937 and shortly after Ben Badis rose to the leadership of another organization the Association of Muslim Algerian [[Ulema]].

[[Image:TiaraPiusIX-sm.jpg|thumb|left|Belgian Papal Tiara of 1871]]

Most of the surviving Triple Tiaras are have the shape of a circular [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehive]], with its central core made of [[silver]]. Within that one shape, a number of variations occurred; some were sharply conical, others bulbous. All tiaras but the latest one were heavily covered in [[Gemstone|jewels]]. Each tiara was structured in the form of three crowns marked by golden decorations, sometimes in the form of crosses, sometimes in the shape of leaves. Most were topped off by a [[crucifix]].

Aswell as working against deviations in the correct practise of Islam Ben Badis and his assciates strived to save Algerian Culture from being eclipsed by French Values and morals.[http://www.cfr.org/publication/7335/islamism_in_algeria.html?breadcrumb=%2Fbios%2F9599%2Fray_takeyh%3Fpage%3D5] Badis and other Islamic scholars resisted against the supression of Algerian patriots; working as a journalist during those years he regularly denounced the fascist propaganda and the anti-Semitic intrigues of the French occupiers.

Each tiara contained at the back two [[lappet]]s; highly decorated strips of cloth stitched with golden thread, on which the coat of arms or other symbol of the pope to whom the individual tiara had been given, were stitched.

Ben Badis was one of the Algerias most prominent Islamic Scholars. With the aid of his contemporaries and associates he successfully discredited [[Marabout]]ic practices and was a great influence in the the creation of an Islamically conservative subsection of Algerian Society. [http://www.cfr.org/publication/7335/islamism_in_algeria.html?breadcrumb=%2Fbios%2F9599%2Fray_takeyh%3Fpage%3D5]

There are two other unusual tiaras: a [[papier-m&acirc;ch&eacute;]] tiara made when [[Pope Pius VI]] was in forced exile without a normal papal tiara to be crowned with, and the one made for [[Pope Paul VI]] in 1963. Shaped like a cross between a beehive and a [[bullet]], and made of silver, Pope Paul's tiara contained few jewels. The three tiers were represented simply by three circles running in parallel around the exterior.

April 16, 1940 Ben Badis died prematurely in his birthplace of Constantine. He was buried in the presence of 20,000 people and his funeral took the aspect of a gigantic humanistic demonstration; anti-colonialist and democratic; the very principles practiced in the life of this large Algerian hero.

The tiara given to [[Pope Pius IX]] in 1877 by the Vatican's [[Palatine Guard|Palatine Honour guard]] in honour of his Jubilee (see photograph below) is strikingly similar in design to the earlier tiara of Gregory XVI. It remained a particularly popular crown, worn by among others [[Pope Pius XI]], [[Pope Pius XII]] and [[Pope John XXIII]]; both were crowned using it. [[Pope Pius XI]]'s 1922 crown, in contrast was much less decorated and much more conical in shape. ''(See image below of this tiara worn by Pope John XXIII.)''

==Weight of the tiara==

[[image:PiusXIcrowned.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Pope Pius XI (1922-1939) wearing a papal tiara.]]

Except the papier-m&acirc;ch&eacute; tiara, the lightest tiara was that made for Pope John XXIII in 1959. It weighed just over 2 [[pound#Pound (avoirdupois) or international pound|lb]] (900 [[kilogram|g]]), as did the 1922 tiara of Pope Pius XI. In contrast the bullet-shaped tiara of Pope Paul VI weighed 10 lb (4.5 [[kilogram|kg]]). The heaviest papal tiara in the papal collection is the [[1804]] tiara donated by Napoleon to celebrate both his marriage to Josephine and his coronation as French emperor. It weighs 18 lb (8.2 kg). However it was never worn, as, some suspected deliberately, its width was made too small for Pope Pius VII to wear.{{ref|Elizabeth}}

A number of popes deliberately had new tiaras made because they found those in the collection either too small, too heavy or a combination of both. Rather than use the papier-m&acirc;ch&eacute; tiara, Pope Gregory XVI had a new lightweight tiara made in the [[1840s]]. In his eighties during the [[1870s]], Pope Pius IX found the other tiaras too heavy to wear and found that of his predecessor, Pope Gregory, too small, so he had a lightweight tiara made also. In [[1908]] Pope Pius X had another lightweight tiara made as he found that the normal tiaras in use were too heavy, while the lightweight ones did not fit comfortably.

New methods of manufacture in the twentieth century enabled the creation of lighter normal tiaras, producing the 2 lb (900 g) tiaras of Pius XI and John XXIII. That, combined with the existence of a range of lightweight tiaras from earlier popes, meant that no pope since Pius X in 1908 has needed to make their own special lightweight tiara.

==Symbolism of the Triple Tiara==

Just what the three crowns of the Triple Tiara symbolise is disputed. Even the [[Holy See]] and [[Vatican City]], which are two distinct entities, give different nuanced interpretations on their websites. The former link it to the threefold authority of the "Supreme [[Pontiff]]: Universal Pastor (top), Universal Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction (middle) and Temporal Power (bottom)" [http://www.ewtn.com/jp2/papal3/tiara.htm| (Holy See interpretation)] while the latter interpretes the three tiers as meaning "Father of princes and kings, Ruler of the world, Vicar of our Saviour [[Jesus]] Christ" [http://www.vatican.va/news_services/press/documentazione/documents/sp_ss_scv/insigne/triregno_en.html| (Vatican interpretation)]. When popes were crowned, the following words were used:

''Accipe thiaram tribus coronis ornatam, et scias te esse Patrem Principum et Regum, Rectorem Orbis, in terra Vicarium Salvatoris Nostri Jesu Christi, cui est honor et gloria in sæcula s&#339;culorum.''

(Receive the tiara adorned with three crowns and know that thou art Father of Princes and Kings, Ruler of the World, Vicar of Our Savior Jesus Christ on earth, to him be the honor and glory forever and ever.)

[[Image:J23t.jpg|left|thumb|Pope John XXIII (1958-1963) wearing his own Tiara given by the people of his home region in 1959. Because his election was so unexpected, they had not the time to have a tiara manufactured for his actual coronation. As shown below at his coronation he used the 1877 tiara.]]

Others have given a spiritual interpretation, the three-fold office of [[Christ]], who is Priest, Prophet and King. [http://www.ewtn.com/holysee/Interregnum/terms.asp| (EWTN)] and [[Pope John Paul II]] in his inauguration Mass,{{ref|homily2}} {{ref|greatness}} or "teacher, lawmaker and judge".{{ref|vestments}} A longstanding traditional interpretation often repeated before [[Second Vatican Council|Vatican II]] suggested that the three crowns refer to the "Church Militant on earth", the "Church Suffering after death and before heaven", and the "Church Triumphant in eternal reward".{{ref|triumphant}} Another theory suggests they represent the Pope's roles as "lawgiver, judge and teacher". Yet another interpretation suggested in the Vatican's own newspaper, ''[[L'Osservatore Romano]]'' by the Archbishop Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo, who designed Pope Benedict XVI's tiara-less coat of arms, was "order, jurisdiction and magisterum".[http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0502625.htm (CNS)] while a further theory links the three tiers to the "celestial, human and terrestrial worlds," which the pope is supposed to symbolically link.[http://users.skynet.be/lotus/flag_file/vaten.htm (Skynet)]

Ultimately no-one knows what they symbolise for all the theories, including the words used in the coronation, either pre-date or post-date the addition of the third level to the tiara. The various meaning may well have emerged to justify a three-tiered crown created in that format for completely different reasons.

The continuing symbolism of the tiara can be seen in the decision of one self-proclaimed "Pope Gregory XVII", [[Clemente Domínguez y Gómez]] of the [[Palmarian Catholic Church]], who believed that he was the rightful successor of Pope Paul VI, to be crowned with his own tiara in a ceremony in [[Spain]] in [[1978]]. ''(Image of his coronation with his own version of a papal tiara is at the bottom of this page.)''

==Origins==

[[Image:Vatican coa.png|thumb|[[Vatican City]] Coat of Arms, using the Papal Tiara.]]

''Main article: [[Origins of the Papal Tiara]]

According to James-Charles Noonan{{ref|Noonan}} the lowest of the three crowns appeared at the base of the traditional white papal headgear in the ninth century. When the popes assumed temporal power in the [[Papal States]], the base crown became decorated with jewels to resemble the crowns of princes. He suggested that a second crown was added by [[Pope Boniface VIII]] in [[1298]] to symbolize spiritual dominion. Very soon after, in or around [[1314]], a third crown and lappets (cloth strips) were added; [[Pope Clement V]] was the first to wear the triple tiara. Though a powerful symbol of the papacy, it has not always been respected even by its wearers. One mediæval pope, [[Pope Innocent VIII|Innocent VIII]], even [[Pawnbroker|pawned off]] his papal tiara. A Protestant theory is that the three crowns (''triregni'') fulfilled Daniel's prophecy in the seventh chapter of his book in which the "little horn" of the Roman Papacy uproots three kingdoms before it.

However not all sources agree with this chronology. (See main article)

==Usage==

[[Image:John23leo.jpg|thumb|left|Pope John XXIII (1958-1963) wearing [[Pope Pius XI]]'s papal tiara]]

The Triple Tiara was not used for liturgical ceremonial, such as celebrating [[High Mass]]. Instead it was used exclusively in formal ceremonial processions to and from [[St. Peter's Basilica]] or [[Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano|St. John Lateran]] (the cathedral of the pope as Bishop of Rome), usually when the pope was being carried in the ''[[sedia gestatoria]]'' or portable throne, whose use was finally ended by [[Pope John Paul II]] in October 1978 (John Paul I had initially decided not to use it, only to relent when informed that without it he could not be seen by people. John Paul II opted to use what became known as the [[popemobile]] when appearing outdoors.) In addition, the triple tiara was used for "solemn acts of jurisdiction" where the pope appeared "in state", for example in making a statement ''ex-cathedra'' (using [[Papal Infallibility]]). It was also worn when a pope gave his traditional ''[[Urbi et Orbi]]'' blessing from a balcony, the only principal occasion when the tiara was worn in a religious ceremony. The pope, like all other bishops, wears a mitre at pontifical liturgical functions.

==The Papal Coronation==

''Main article: [[Papal Coronation]]''

Undoubtedly the most famous occasion when the triple tiara was used was the papal coronation, when, in a six-hour ceremony, the new pope would be carried in state on the ''[[sedia gestatoria]]'' ''(portable throne - see image of Pope John XXIII above)'', with attendants fanning the pontiff with [[ostrich]] feathers ''(fans can be seen in the background of photograph of Pius XI above)'' to the ___location of the coronation. Traditionally coronations took place in or in the environs of St Peter's Basilica. {{ref|hp}}

[[Image:Johnxxiii-color-tiara-sm.jpg|right|thumb|Pope John XXIII blesses the crowds after his coronation in 1958. He is wearing the 1877 tiara.]]

At the moment of the coronation, the new pope would be crowned with the words

: ''Receive the tiara adorned with three crowns and know that thou art Father of princes and kings, Ruler of the world, Vicar of our Saviour Jesus Christ.''

Pope Paul VI opted for a significantly shorter ceremony than the traditional six hour ceremony previously performed.

As with all other modern coronations, the ceremony itself was only symbolic; the person duly elected became pope and Bishop of Rome the moment he accepted his election in the [[papal election|Conclave]], as popes John Paul I, John Paul II, and Benedict XVI showed by declining a coronation. However the ceremony was not abolished and remains an option for future popes.

==The Papal Tiara and the 666 controversy==

[[Image:Palatinetiara.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The 1877 Tiara of Pope Pius IX (back view). The fact that it is the most worn modern tiara accounts for its somewhat ragged look, including the fact that its cross on top of the [[monde (crown)|monde]] has at some stage been accidentially pushed and now leans off-centre. Its [[lappets]] (two attached pieces of cloth) also show signs of heavy wear.]]

''Main article: [[Vicarius Filii Dei]]''

One common controversy surrounding the papal tiara, particularly coming from [[Seventh-Day Adventist Church|Seventh-Day Adventists]] and other Protestants, involves the claim that the words ''Vicarius Filii Dei'' (Vicar of the Son of God) exist on the side of one of the tiaras. The controversy centres on the widely made claim that, when numerised (i.e., when those letters in the "title" that have [[Roman numerals]] value are added together) the words produce the number "666", described in the [[Book of Revelation]] as the [[Number of the Beast (numerology)|Number of the Beast]] (who some have claimed would "wear" a crown similar to a triple tiara). This claim has been made by some evangelical [[Protestantism|Protestant]] groups who believe that the pope as head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] ''is'' the [[Antichrist]]. [[Heretic]]s dating back to the [[Cathar]]s and [[Waldensians]] in the thirteenth century also held this view of the Church.

Four sources are sometimes given to back up the claim, including two witnesses who claimed to have seen Pope Gregory XVI wearing a tiara with ''Vicarius Filii Dei'' on it in [[1832]] and [[1845]],{{ref|Smith}} the supposed existence of an early twentieth century papal funeral showing a tiara with the writing, and the fact that the tiara with the writing was used to crown Eugenio Pacelli as [[Pope Pius XII]] in [[1939]].

None of the claims hold up to scrutiny. One of the occasions where the Pope was "seen" wearing the tiara was supposedly during a [[Tridentine Mass|Pontifical High Mass]] in St. Peter's Basilica. In fact popes ''never'' wore tiaras during Mass. It was never used as a liturgical item. In addition the tiara used for Pius XII's coronation in 1939 could not have been worn by Gregory XVI as it was manufactured thirty-one years after Gregory's death. All the tiaras potentially worn by Gregory still exist; none have writing, nor does the tiara worn by Pius in 1939.

Finally, no evidence as to the existence of the supposed photograph has been produced, nor is it credible that a black and white photograph, taken from a distance inside a darkened [[St. Peter's Basilica]], in the absence of modern photographic technology or even zoom lenses, could have picked up writing on a far-away tiara, had such writing existed. A photograph of a tiara supposedly on the coffin of Pope Pius X, at his canonisation in [[1954]] -&mdash; but in actuality part of the decorations at the base of one of the columns supporting the bronze [[baldachin]] over the main (papal) altar in [[Saint Peter's Basilica]] -&mdash; decades after the supposed original photograph, could not see the jewels on the tiara, much less any supposed writing.

[[Image:Stpiusx.jpg|200px|thumb|A 1954 photograph of the canonisation of Pope Pius X. The tiara supposedly on his coffin is in actuality part of the decorations at the base of one of the columns supporting the bronze baldachin over the main (papal) altar in Saint Peter's Basilica.]]

Contrary to claims of a cover-up, all tiaras manufactured since [[1800]] still exist and are on public display, with a number being sent around the world as part of the ''[http://vatican.hmns.org/sections.html Saint Peter and The Vatican: The Legacy of the Popes]'' exhibition which visited the [[United States]] in [[2005]]. Only a handful, notably, the Belgian Tiara of 1871 and the Gold Tiara of 1903 have any writing at all. The 1871 tiara's writing is not ''Vicarius Filii Dei'' or anything that could confused with it, but CHRISTI VICARIO &ndash; IN TERRA &ndash; REGUM.

Many historians, academics and mainstream religious leaders view the story as a classic [[Myths and legends surrounding the Papacy|anti-Catholic myth]], a story for which no evidence has been found, even by the Seventh Day Adventists who have spent over a century extensively searching for the evidence. Finally, the title ''Vicarius Filii Dei'' itself is not a common papal title; however, the [[Donation of Constantine]] uses it to refer to [[Saint Peter|St. Peter]] specifically.

==The last crowned Pope==

As with all previous popes, [[Pope Paul VI]] was crowned with a tiara at the papal coronation. As happened sometimes with previous popes, a new tiara was used, one donated by the city of Milan in honour of Paul's elevation; he had been Cardinal [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|Archbishop of Milan]] up to his election. Pope Paul's tiara was quite different from earlier tiaras. It was not covered in jewels and precious gems, but was sharply cone-shaped. It was also distinctly lighter in weight than earlier tiaras.

[[Image:Paulcrnd.jpg|left|thumb|Pope Paul VI (1963-1978) is crowned at the last papal coronation, in 1963.]]

Pope Paul VI was the last pontiff to date to wear a tiara. At the end of the [[Second Vatican Council]], he descended the steps of the papal throne in St Peter's Basilica and laid the tiara on the altar in a dramatic gesture of humility and as a sign of the renunciation of human glory and power in keeping with the renewed spirit of the Second Vatican Council. It marked a renunciation of one of the three possible reasons for the existence of the three tiers of the crown; secular power, which in any case had ended in [[1870]] when the Papal States joined the rest of Italy to form the Kingdom of Italy. Popes initially refused to accept their loss of the Papal States. In an act of defiance, they refused to leave the Vatican, one describing himself melodramatically as the "prisoner in the Vatican" in [[1875]]. Paul's removal of his tiara was intended to forever symbolise the papacy's renunciation of any desire for secular power.

[[image:P6tiara.jpg|right|thumb|Pope Paul VI (1963-1978) laying his Papal Tiara on the altar of St. Peter's Basilica at the end of Vatican II]]

Pope Paul's decision for his reign to abandon the use of one of the most striking symbols of the papacy, the Papal Tiara, proved highly controversial with [[Traditionalist Catholic]]s, many of whom continue to campaign for its re-instatement.{{ref|conservative}} Some indeed branded him an [[antipope]], arguing that no ''valid'' pope would surrender the papal tiara. At least one "claimant" to the papacy after Paul VI's death, [[Clemente Domínguez y Gómez]], of the conservative catholic ''Palmar de Troya'' movement, and who was "proclaimed" as "Pope Gregory XVII" by his followers in [[Seville]], [[Spain]] in 1978, was "crowned" using a "new" "papal tiara", showing the power of its symbolism. A rival antipope, [[Lucian_Pulvermacher|Pius XIII]] of the "True Catholic Church" has made use of the tiara on his coat of arms.

Pope Paul's tiara was presented to the [[Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] by the Apostolic Delegate to the United States on [[February 6]], [[1968]] as a gesture of Pope Paul VI's affection for the Catholic Church in the United States. It is on permanent display in Memorial Hall along with the stole of [[Pope John XXIII]], which he wore at the opening of the Second Vatican Council.

==A permanent end to the wearing of the Triple Tiara?==

''Main articles: [[Papal Inauguration]] and [[Enthronement]]. ''

[[image:pope-pallium.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Inauguration of Pope John Paul II in 1978: He wore a [[mitre|Simplex Mitre]]. Around his neck he wore a woolen [[pallium]], which replaced the tiara in the inauguration ceremony. He also did not take the [[Papal Oath]].]]

In 1978, one of [[Pope John Paul I]]'s first decisions on his election was to dispense with the 1000-year-old papal coronation and the use of a papal tiara. In doing so he ignored the requirements specified in Pope Paul VI's 1975 [[Apostolic Constitution]] ''Romano Pontifici Eligendo'' which laid down the rules for future papal elections and which explicitly required the continuation of papal coronations and the use of the papal tiara stating that

''the new pontiff is to be crowned by the senior cardinal deacon.'' {{ref|paul6constitution}}

The existence of this requirement suggests that Pope Paul believed his decision not to wear his tiara was purely a ''personal'' decision and was not intended to set future policy on the use of papal tiaras. John Paul I, after what was called a "long and tedious argument" in which he insisted he did not want to be crowned, was instead installed in a revised and simpler [[Papal Inauguration|Papal Inauguration Mass]], so low-key indeed that he had it moved to the morning so as not to disrupt [[Serie A|Italian soccer]] coverage, which would normally be shown in the afternoon. {{ref|Yallop}}

After Pope John Paul I's sudden death less than a month later, the new pope, John Paul II, opted to continue with John Paul I's precedent of replacing the papal coronation with a modest inauguration, though he did say in his Inauguration homily that it was simply "not the time" to wear a tiara, while dismissing the claims made that the tiara in some way represented the continuation of papal claim to [[temporal power|temporal power]].

Pope John Paul II explicitly mentioned the word "inauguration" rather than coronation in his 1996 Apostolic Constitution, in which he wrote

[[Image:Holysee-arms.png|thumb|[[Heraldry|Coat of Arms]] of the [[Holy See]], incorporating the Papal Tiara]]

''After the solemn ceremony of the inauguration of the pontificate and within an appropriate time, the pope will take possession of the Patriachal Archbasilica of the Latern, according to the prescribed ritual.''{{ref|johnpaul2constitution}}

However the phraseology is descriptive, not prescriptive. Instead of explicitly speaking of an "inauguration ceremony" or "the Papal Inauguration Mass" it spoke simply of the "ceremony of ''the'' inauguration of the pontificate", an ambiguous phraseology, especially with the inclusion of the definite article, as any number of different types of ceremonies, even coronations, can be described amounting to the inaugurating (ie, ceremonial beginning) of a pontificate. John Paul's terminology left it up to his successor to decide what sort of solemn ceremony to use to inaugurate his pontificate. All it explicitly required was that ''some'' solemn ceremony take place.

With the disappearance of the papal coronation, the [[British monarchy|British monarch]] is now the only monarch in a western country to receive a [[coronation]]. All others, like modern popes, are inaugurated into office. However, the tiara has not been abolished, merely laid aside in terms of usage. Thus a future pope could decide to be crowned and wear one of the Triple Tiaras: the recent increased usage of some traditional elements, most notably the [[Tridentine Mass]], which in an about turn is now being approved for usage more widely,{{ref|Tridentine}} might open up the prospect of a return of what was ''the'' papal symbol pre-[[Second Vatican Council]].

[[Image:Coabxvi.png|left|thumb|150px|Coat of arms of Pope [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]] that does not include the Papal Tiara]]

Though unworn, the tiara remained the symbol of the papacy, and still featured as one of the ornaments on the [[Papal Coat of Arms|coat of arms of popes]], including the uncrowned popes John Paul I and John Paul II. It was, however, apparently replaced by a bishop's [[mitre]] in the coat of arms of Pope Benedict XVI, even though the use of the mitre as a heraldic ornament was in fact prohibited by Pope Paul VI. However a subsequent version of Benedict's arms, used on official Vatican documentation, showed them with a tiara. Whether both are meant as alternates to be used in different contexts, or the tiara-less version is being withdrawn and being replaced by the one with the tiara, has not be clarified to date.

Should Benedict XVI issue his own Apostolic Constitution on events surrounding the selection of a pope, Benedict XVI may opt to reinstate the requirement for a coronation, allow John Paul's non-perscriptive terminology to continue to be used, or explicitly require a formal Papal Inauguration as the only option.

One of the papal tiaras remains in use, however; it is placed on the head of a statue of [[St. Peter]] to honour him as the first pope on the feast of [[Saint]]s [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], [[June 29]].

==Tiara envy==

[[Image:GregoryXVII.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Self-proclaimed<br> '''[[Clemente Domínguez y Gómez|Pope Gregory XVII]]''' (the [[Catholic Church]] considers him an [[anti-pope]]), who claimed to be the legitimate successor of [[Pope Paul VI]], wearing his own version of the Papal Tiara at his coronation in [[Seville]] in 1978. He died in 2005.]]

The 16th Century [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Sultan]] [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] is known to have commissioned Italian craftsmen to make a 4-crown tiara modeled on the Papal design, to demonstrate that his power and authority exceeded that of the Pontiff's.

Conversely, the papal coronation ceremony, in which the Pope was fanned with [[Ostrich]] feathers and carried in a ''[[sedia gestatoria]]'' (portable throne), was based on ceremonies witnessed in [[Constantinople]] in the [[Middle Ages]].

==The triple tiara in Tarot==

[[Middle Ages|Medieval]] [[tarot]] [[Playing card|cards]] contained a card showing a woman wearing a papal tiara and known as the ''Papess''/''High Priestess''. The meaning and symbolism of the card is uncertain. The crowned woman has variously been identified as [[Pope Joan]] (a supposed woman pope who featured in medieval [[myth]]s &mdash; some cards also show a child; the Pope Joan myth had suggested that Joan, who had disguised herself as a man and been elected pope, had been found out when she gave birth during a papal procession), [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary, Mother of God]], [[Cybele]], [[Isis]], or [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]. The use of a papal tiara worn by a woman in cards produced during the [[Protestant Reformation]], and the use of apparent images of "Pope Joan" and her child, has been seen as a Protestant attempt to ridicule the papacy.

The papal tiara however disappeared from later cards, who showed the ''Papess'' wearing more standard medieval female headgear. The tarot cards also contained a representation of the pope, in some cases crowned with a papal tiara.{{ref|tarot}}

==See also==

* [[Papal Coronation]]

* [[papacy]]

* [[List of popes]]

* [[Papal States]]

* [[Holy See]]

* [[tiara]]

==Footnotes==

#{{Note|Triregno}} Some accounts of the papal tiara call it the ''Triregno'', others the ''triregnum''. The Holy See's press office uses the latter name.

# {{Note|homily}} Papal Inauguration Homily of Pope John Paul II, ''L'Osservatore Romano'' [http://www.catholicculture.org/docs/doc_view.cfm?recnum=1138 (Text of the Homily)]

#{{Note|arms}} [http://www.home.earthlink.net/~herald97/guyselvester/ website of a priest who is an expert on ecclesiastical heraldry]

#{{Note|crozier}} "The use of the crozier and mitre in the coat-of-arms is suppressed." Section 28. ''Instructions on the Dress, Titles and Coats-of-Arms of Cardinals, Bishops and Lesser Prelates'' by Pope Paul VI, published in [[L'Osservatore Romano]], [[17 April]] [[1969]].

#{{Note|JuliusII}} Designed by [[Ambrogio Foppa]] with a massive cost of 200,000 [[ducat]]s, one third of the papacy's annual income, at a time when a [[parish]] [[priest]] was paid 25 ducats a year.

#{{Note|Elizabeth}} To give a comparison in weights, [[St. Edward's Crown]], with which [[United Kingdom|British]] monarchs are crowned, weighs only 4 lb 12 oz (2.155 kg). Yet Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] after her coronation commented how the crown "does get rather heavy". Similarly King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George]] said after the [[Delhi Durbar]] in 1911 how the [[Imperial Crown of India]] "hurt my head as it is rather heavy". Yet both these crowns are lighter than most papal tiaras, and less than a third of the weight of the 1804 tiara given to Pius VII by Napoleon. Gyles Brandreth, ''Philip & Elizabeth'' (Century, 2004) p.311. and "The Crown Jewels" published by the Tower of London.

# {{Note|homily2}} Papal Inauguration Homily of Pope John Paul II, ''L'Osservatore Romano'' [http://www.catholicculture.org/docs/doc_view.cfm?recnum=1138 (Text of the Homily)]

#{{Note|greatness}} [http://www.newmanhouse.ca/desouza/jpii-art1.html National Post article, [[16 October]] [[2004]]]

#{{Note|vestments}} [http://www.memorare.com/puzzles/vestmentanswers.htm Website on pre-Vatican II liturgical and ecclesiastical vestments and symbols]

#{{Note|triumphant}} http://www.electapope.com/index.php?page=The_Coronation

#{{Note|Noonan}} James-Charles Noonan, ''The Church Visible'', (ISBN 0670867454)

#{{Note|hp}} John Cornwell, ''Hitler's Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII'' (Viking, 1999) pp. 211-212.

#{{Note|Smith}} Uriah Smith, ''Thoughts, Critical and Practical on the Book of Revelation'' (published in 1865 by the Seventh Day Adventists)

#{{Note|conservative}} [http://www.dailycatholic.org/issue/05Apr/apr29ed.htm Traditionalist Catholic website criticising Benedict XVI's non-use of the papal tiara]

#{{Note|paul6constitution}} ''Romano Pontifici Eligendo'' (1975), No. 92.

#{{Note|Yallop}} David Yallop, ''In God's Name: An Investigation into the Murder of Pope John Paul I'' (Corgi, 1985) p.237.

#{{Note|johnpaul2constitution}} ''Universi Dominici Gregis'' (1996), No. 92.

#{{Note|Tridentine}} After decades of active prohibition, the Vatican in the late 1990s and early 2000s facilitated the usage of the pre-Vatican II Latin Tridentine Rite of Mass, which previously had only been allowed in limited cases to small congregations in exceptional circumstances. A full ''Pontifical High Mass'' celebrated by a cardinal and attended by [[John Cardinal O'Connor|Cardinal O'Connor]] of New York, occurred for the first time in 30 years in St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York at the end of the twentieth century while Tridentine Masses have been allowed (though not yet on the main altar) in St. Peter's Basilica, an act facilitated by the retirement of Cardinal Noe, who had been the prelate who championed the abandonment of the papal tiara and who designed the replacement inauguration ceremony. Most dramatically of all, it was revealed in [[2002]] that [[Pope John Paul II]] had on occasion celebrated the traditional Latin Mass in his private chapel in the Vatican, rather than the [[Novus Ordo Missae]] Mass, which was introduced by [[Pope Paul VI]] and is usually celebrated in the vernacular rather than in Latin.

#{{Note|tarot}} Dr. Robert O'Neill, [http://tarot.com/about-tarot/library/boneill/papess ''Iconography of the early papess cards''], [http://tarot.com/about-tarot/library/boneill/pope ''Iconography of the pope cards'']

==References==

<references />

* [http://www.el-mouradia.dz/francais/algerie/portrait/Archives/badis.htm Biography Of Ben Badis in French]

( [http://www.cfr.org/publication/7335/islamism_in_algeria.html?breadcrumb=%2Fbios%2F9599%2Fray_takeyh%3Fpage%3D5 Council on Foreign Relations; Islamism in Algeria ]

[[image:Jp1arms.jpg|right|thumb|115px|Coat of Arms of Pope John Paul I: The tiara is used on the Arms even though he was uncrowned.]]

*{{Book reference | Author=Bernstein, Carl; Politi, Marco | Title=His Holiness: John Paul II and the Hidden History of our Time | Publisher=New York: Doubleday | Year=1996 | ID=ISBN 0385405383 }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Cornwell, John | Title=Hitler's Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII | Publisher=New York: Viking | Year=1999 | ID=ISBN 0670876208 }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Cornwell, John | Title=A Thief in the Night: The Death of Pope John Paul I | Publisher=London: Viking | Year=1989 | ID=ISBN 0670823872}}

*{{Book reference | Author=de Cesare, Raffaele | Title=The Last Days of Papal Rome 1850-1870 | Publisher=London: A. Constable | Year=1909 | ID= }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Davis, Raymond (ed.) | Title=The Book of Pontiffs (Liber Pontificalis) | Publisher=Liverpool: Liverpool University Press | Year=2000 | ID=ISBN 0853235457 }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Duffy, Eamon | Title=Saint & Sinners: A History of the Popes | Publisher=New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press | Year=1997 | ID=ISBN 0300073321 }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Hales, E.E.Y. (Edward Elton Young) | Title=Pio Nono: A Study in European Politics and Religion in the Nineteenth Century. | Publisher=London: Eyre & Spottiswoode | Year=1954 | ID= }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Hebblethwaite, Peter | Title=The Year of Three Popes | Publisher=London: Collins | Year=1978 | ID=ISBN 0002150476 }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Hebblethwaite, Peter | Title=Paul VI : The First Modern Pope | Publisher=New York: Paulist Press | Year=1993 | ID=ISBN 080910461X }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Hebblethwaite, Peter | Title=John XXIII: Pope of the Century | Publisher=London: Continuum | Year=2000 | ID=ISBN 0826449956 }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Heim, Bruno | Title=Heraldry in the Catholic Church: Its Origins, Customs and Laws | Publisher=Gerrards Cross, Eng.: Van Duren | Year=1978 | ID=ISBN 0905715055 }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Hobsworth, Dean | Title=From True Cross to True Crown: Papalism and Its Evils | Publisher= | Year=1884 | ID= }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Levillain, Philippe (ed.)| Title=The Papacy: An Encyclopedia | Publisher=New York: Routledge| Year=2002 | ID=ISBN 0415922283 }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Nielsen, Fredrik Kristian | Title=The History of the Papacy in the XIXth Century | Publisher=London: J. Murray | Year=1906 | ID= }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Noonan, James-Charles. | Title=The Church Visible: The Ceremonial Life and Protocol of the Roman Catholic Church | Publisher=New York: Viking | Year=1996 | ID=ISBN 0670867454 }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Rudé, George F. E. | Title=Revolutionary Europe, 1783-1815 | Publisher=Oxford: Blackwell | Year=2000 | ID=ISBN 0631221891 }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Smith, Uriah | Title=Thoughts, Critical and Practical on the Book of Revelation | Publisher=Battle Creek, Mich.: Seventh-day Adventist | Year=1881 | ID= }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Smithe, Jefferson | Title=Roman Catholic Ritual | Publisher=London | Year=1902 | ID= }}

*{{Book reference | Author=Willey, David | Title=God's Politician: John Paul at the Vatican | Publisher= London: Faber and Faber | Year=1992 | ID=ISBN 0571161804}}

*{{Book reference | Author=Yallop, David A. | Title=In God's Name: An Investigation into the Murder of Pope John Paul I | Publisher=Toronto: Bantam Books| Year=1984 | ID=ISBN 0553050737 }}

==External links==

* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14714c.htm Catholic Encyclopædia entry on the papal tiara ]

* [http://www.truecatholic.org/pope/ conservative 'catholic' website of self-proclaimed 'Pope Pius XIII' which criticised 'anti-pope' Pope Paul VI for 'abandoning' the papal tiara ]

* [http://www.geocities.com/rexstupormundi/papalmonarchy.html unofficial 'papal monarchy' site ]

* [http://www.ewtn.com/jp2/papal3/pontif.htm contains a page on the papal tiara ]

* [http://www.piusxiipope.info/papacy.htm contains a colour picture of Pope Pius XII wearing a papal tiara ]

* [http://www.vatican.va/news_services/press/documentazione/documents/sp_ss_scv/insigne/triregno_en.html Holy See Press Office information on the papal tiara ]

* [http://www.geocities.com/Area51/Lair/7170/ibio1.htm website of self-proclaimed 'Pope Gregory XVII', who was 'crowned' as Pope Paul VI's 'successor' by his supporters in the catholic breakaway Palmar de Troya movement in 1978 ]

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[[ar:عبد الحميد بن باديس]]

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