Sentence function: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 18:41, 28 October 2016

Latest revision as of 22:36, 21 February 2025

(36 intermediate revisions by 24 users not shown)

Line 1:

{{refimproveno footnotes|date=February 20112022}}

In [[linguistics]], a sentence '''sentence function''' refers to a speaker's purpose in uttering a specific sentence, phraseclause, or clausephrase. Whether a listener is present or not is sometimes irrelevant. It answers the question: "Why has this been said?" The fourfive basic '''sentence functionsforms in(or the world"structures")'''s languagesin includeEnglish are the ''declarative'', ''interrogative'', ''exclamative'', ''imperative'' and the ''imperativeoptative''. These correspond to athe '''discourse functions''' ''statement'', ''question'', ''exclamation'', and ''command'' respectively. Typically,The adifferent sentenceforms goesinvolve from one function to the next through a combination ofdifferent changescombinations in word order, intonation, the addition of certain auxiliaries or particles, or other times by providing a special verbal form. The fourThere mainis categoriesno clear one-to-one correspondence between the forms/structures and their discourse functions. For example, a declarative form can be furtherused specifiedto asask beinga eitherquestion, ''communicative''and orinterrogative ''informative''form can be used to make a statement.

For instance, the following sentence has declarative form:<ref>https://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/clauses/discours.htm</ref>

==Communicative vs. informative==

While [[communication]] is traditionally defined as the transfer of [[information]], the two terms, under present context, are differentiated as follows below:

''You need some help''

===Communicative sentences===

These types of sentences are more intended for the speaker's sake than for any potential listener. They are meant more for the speaker's immediate wants and needs. These sentences tend to be less intentional (out of frustration for example), in general more literal, more primitive, and are usually about the here and now. Because of these features, it is generally speculated that this is pretty much the basis or limitation of any form of animal communication. (Speculated because scientists will never truly be able to understand non-human forms of communication like we do our own; although studies with "talking" primates have clued us in to a certain degree.)

But when this is spoken with a rising intonation, it becomes a question:

====Exclamatory====

An exclamative or exclamatory sentence is released because of, and expresses strong emotion. They many times feel like involuntary reactions to a situation, yet they ''can'' technically be stifled if need be. And while exclamatives most usually manifest themselves as one or two word interjections, they can also come as major sentences. They are essentially unfiltered vocalizations of our feelings, and a form of self-talk because they are directed either at the speaker themself or at nobody in particular. In [[punctuation]], an exclamative is ended with an exclamation mark.

''You need some help?''

* ''Ouch!''

* ''I'll never finish this paper in time!''

Conversely, rhetorical questions have the form of an interrogative, but they are really statements:

====Imperative====

An imperative sentence gives anything from a command or order, to a request, direction, or instruction. Imperative sentences are more intentional than exclamatory sentences and ''do'' require an audience; as their aim is to get the person(s) being addressed either to do or to not do something. And although this function usually deals with the immediate temporal vicinity, its scope can be extended, i.e. you can order somebody to ''move out as soon as you find yourself a job''. The negative imperative can also be called the ''prohibitive'' and the inclusive plural imperative, the ''hortative''. It is debatable whether the imperative is only truly possible in the second person. The vocative case of nouns can be said to indicate the imperative as well since it does not seek information, but rather a reaction from the one being addressed. An imperative can end in either a period or an exclamation point depending on delivery.

''Who cares? ( = I don't care)''

* ''Look at me.''

* ''After separating them from the yolks, beat the whites until they are light and fluffy.''

The four main categories can be further specified as being either ''communicative'' or ''informative'', although this is somewhat simplistic.

===Informative sentences===

== Communicative vs. informative ==

Informative sentences are more for the mutual benefit of both the listener ''and'' the speaker, and, in fact, require more of an interaction between both parties involved. They are more intentional or premeditated, less essential, more cooperative, and they aim to either provide or retrieve information, making them quintessential abstractions. But perhaps the most differentiating quality that distinguishes informative sentences from the communicative is that the former more naturally and freely make use of [[Displacement (linguistics)|displacement]]. Displacement refers to information lost in time and space which allows us to communicate ideas relating to the past or future (not just the now), and that have taken or can take place at a separate ___location (from here). To an extent, this is one of the biggest differences between human communication and that of other animals.

While [[communication]] is traditionally defined as the transfer of [[information]], the two terms, under present context, are differentiated as follows below:

=== Communicative sentences ===

====Declarative====

These types of sentences are more intended for the speaker's sake than for any potential listener. They are meant more for the speaker's immediate wants and needs. These sentences tend to be less intentional (out of frustration for example), in general more literal, more primitive, and are usually about the here and now. Because of these features, it is generally speculated that this is pretty much the basis or limitation of any form of animal communication. (Speculated because scientists will never truly be able to understand non-human forms of communication like we do our own; although studies with "talking" primates have clued us in to a certain degree.)

The declarative sentence is the most common kind of sentence in language, in most situations, and in a way can be considered the default function of a sentence. What this means essentially is that when a language modifies a sentence in order to form a question or give a command, the base form will always be the declarative. In its most basic sense, a declarative states an idea (either objectively or subjectively on the part of the speaker; and may be either true or false) for the sheer purpose of transferring intel. In writing, a statement will end with a period.

==== Exclamative ====

* ''Roses are red and violets are blue.''

An exclamative is a sentence type in English that typically spontaneously expresses a feeling or emotion, but does not use one of the other structures. It often has the form as in the examples below of [WH + Complement + Subject + Verb], but can be minor sentences (i.e. without a verb) such as [WH + Complement] ''How wonderful!''. In other words, exclamative sentences are used to make exclamations:

* ''She must be out of her mind.''

''What a stupid man he is!''

====Interrogative====

An interrogative sentence asks a question and hence ends with a question mark. In speech, it almost universally ends in a rising inflection. Its effort is to try to gather information that is presently unknown to the interrogator, or to seek validation for a preconceived notion held. Beyond seeking confirmation or contradiction, sometimes it is approval or permission that is sought as well, among other reasons one could have for posing a question. The one exception in which it isn't information that is needed, is when the question happens to be rhetorical (see [[Sentence function#Allofunctional implicature|allofunctional implicature]] section below). While an imperative is a call for action, an interrogative is a call for information.

* ''WhatHow dowonderful you want?look!''

* ''Are you feeling well?'' booooooo

==== Imperative ====

==Declarative vs. Affirmative vs. Positive==

An imperative sentence gives anything from a command or order, to a request, direction, instruction, suggestion, or instructionimplication. Imperative sentences are more intentional than exclamatory sentences and ''do'' require an audience;,{{Efn|Although the audience could be the speaker (someone talking to themself), e.g., “Let me see, where did I put my glasses/keys/face mask?”|group=note}} as their aim is to get the person(s) being addressed either to do or to not do something. And although this function usually deals with the immediate temporal vicinity, its scope can be extended, i.e. you can order somebody to ''move out as soon as you find yourself a job''. The negative imperative can also be called the ''prohibitive'' and the inclusive plural imperative, the ''hortative[[cohortative]]''. It is debatable whether the imperative is only truly possible in the second person. The vocative case of nouns can be said to indicate the imperative as well since it does not seek information, but rather a reaction from the one being addressed. An imperative can end in either a period or an exclamation point depending on delivery.

A declarative statement should not be deemed synonymous with an [[affirmative (linguistics)|affirmative]] one. This is because although a declarative statement can state facts (given that the speaker is not consciously lying), it can also express something which is not true. The information he or she is providing, regardless of whether it be true or not in ''reality'', is in fact true or false to that speaker. Therefore, a declarative can be either in the affirmative or in the [[negation (linguistics)|negative]], and we can say that, ''Joanna is late'' and ''Joanna is not late'', both technically qualify as declarative sentences. ''Declarative'' refers to a sentence's function or purpose, while ''affirmative'' and ''negative'' deal with a sentence's veracity, or grammatical polarity, which is why the different terms can overlap simultaneously.

* ''Look at me.''

Though not as erroneous as the above misnomer, there is a clouding that can occur between the slight distinction of the affirmative, and the [[positive (linguistics)|positive]]. Although it semantically speaking comes natural that ''positive'' is the opposite of ''negative'', and therefore should be completely synonymous with ''affirmative'', grammatically speaking, once again they tend to be separate entities; depending on specificity. ''Positive'' in linguistic terms refers to the degree of the quality of an adjective or adverb, while ''affirmative'' refers to the perceived validity of the ''entire'' sentence.

* ''After separating them from the yolks, beat the whites until they are light and fluffy.''

====Exclamatory Optative ====

Thus, all three terms being separate entities, an adjective or adverb can be in the positive degree but expressed in the negative, so that the sentence, ''This hummer does not seem to be eco-friendly'', has all negative, positive, and declarative properties.

An optative sentence describes wishes, desires, blessings, curses, prayers or hope regarding a given action. It is related to the subjunctive mood, a grammatical feature that indicates the speaker’s attitude toward something, such as a wish, emotions, judgment, possibility, opinion, obligation, or action that has yet to occur. Optative sentences may end with an exclamation mark or a full stop.

''Long live the king!''

In fact, an exclamatory, imperative, as well as a question can be in the negative form: ''I can't do this!'', ''Don't touch me'', ''Don't you want to?''

''God bless you.''

==Allofunctional implicature==

There are many instances in which a sentence can be grammatically shaped as one function, yet in actual execution, may serve a completely different purpose than suggested by the way it was constructed; hence, ''allofunctional'', to mean 'serving a different purpose than originally intended'. Or in other words, it is very subtly yet unequivocally implied by process of [[pragmatics]] that its function ''must'' be changed to another in order for the sentence to make sense in the present context of conversation.

=== Informative sentences ===

A classic example would be the "question": ''Could you pass the salt?''

Informative sentences are more for the mutual benefit of both the listener ''and'' the speaker, and, in fact, require more of an interaction between both parties involved. They are more intentional or premeditated, less essential, more cooperative, and they aim to either provide or retrieve information, making them quintessential abstractions. But perhaps the most differentiating quality that distinguishes informative sentences from the communicative ones is that the former more naturally and freely make use of [[Displacement (linguistics)|displacement]]. Displacement refers to information lost in time and space which allows us to communicate ideas relating to the past or future (not just the now), and that have taken or can take place at a separate ___location (from here). To an extent, thisThis is one of the biggest differences between human communication and that of other animals.

==== Declarative ====

In the above sentence, although it is grammatically structured as a question, it can quite safely be inferred that the speaker is not inquiring as to whether the person they are addressing is physically capable of passing the salt at the dinnertable or not. What the speaker really wants is to get the salt. It is a request, or call for action as opposed to information, thus making the sentence allofunctional (note that adding a word like 'please' at the end would tend to make this point clearer, and when posed as a question, this request is perceived as being more polite than if it were simply in the natural imperative). Therefore, what at first may come off as an interrogative sentence upon initial delivery, the listener must almost immediately reinterpret as an imperative and respond accordingly.

The declarative sentence is the most common kind of sentence in language, in most situations, and in a way can be considered the default function of a sentence. What this means essentially is thatform: when a language modifies a sentence in order to formforms a question or give a command, theit basewill formbe willa alwaysmodification beof the declarative. In its most basic sense, aA declarative states an idea (either objectively or subjectively on the part of the speaker; and may be either true or false) for the sheer purpose of transferring intelinformation. In writing, a statement will end with a period.

* ''The internet connection is working again.''

Other examples include;

* ''She must be out of her mind.''

==== Interrogative ====

*'''Exclamative interrogative''' (interrogative structure with exclamative function): ''Why does this keep happening to me?''

An interrogative sentence asks a question and hence ends with a question mark. In speech, it almost universally ends in a rising inflection. Its effort is to try to gather information that is presently unknown to the interrogator, or to seek validation for a preconceived notion held. Beyond seeking confirmation or contradiction, sometimes it is approval or permission that is sought as well, among other reasons one could have for posing a question. The one exception in which it isn't information that is needed, is when the question happens to be rhetorical (see [[Sentence function#Allofunctional implicature|allofunctional implicature]] section below). While an imperative is a call for action, an interrogative is a call for information.

**I might utter this phrase only to vent out my frustration vocally.

*'''Imperative declarative''' (declarative structure with imperative function): ''I would feel more comfortable if you wore your seatbelt.''

**If I say this to you I'm strongly urging you to buckle up.

* ''What do you want?''

The list goes on, and as a matter of fact, all 12 combinations between each of the four functions and their three other counterparts should be theoretically possible.

* ''Are you feeling well?'' booooooo

== Declarative vs. Affirmativeaffirmative vs. Positivepositive ==

Another important point to note is that the allofunctionality of a sentence is completely language specific as to how it differentiates function. To exemplify this, we can look at English and generalize that imperative sentences, when affirmative, tend to begin with the verb, while declarative sentences that are prosaic will almost always start with the subject (this is because in the imperative, the subject is implied, or obviously unmistakable, since it is the subject itself which is being spoken to). All that being taken into account, we can more clearly see why a statement such as, ''You are not going to that bar. (I forbid it)'', would qualify as allofunctional.

A declarative statement is not synonymous with an [[affirmative (linguistics)|affirmative]] one, nor need it be true. Declaratives may be phrased positively or negatively (assert or negate), agree with or contradict a polar question (affirm or refute), be honest or deceive (speak frankly or lie), and be true or false (inform accurately or misinform). All qualify as declarative sentences. ''Declarative'' refers to a sentence's structure, while ''positive,'' ''affirmative'', and ''true'' deal with a sentence's grammatical [[Comparison (grammar)|degree of comparison]], [[Polarity item|polarity]], and [[veridicality]], which is why the different terms can overlap simultaneously.

Though not as erroneous as the above misnomer, there is a clouding that can occur between the slight distinction of the affirmative, and the [[positive (linguistics)|positive]]. Although it semantically speaking comes natural that ''positive'' is the opposite of ''negative'', and therefore should be completely synonymous with ''affirmative'', grammatically speaking, once again they tend to be separate entities; depending on specificity. ''Positive'' in linguistic terms refers to the degreeprimary, ofnoncomparative the qualitysense of an adjective or adverb, while ''affirmative'' refers to the perceived validity of the ''entire'' sentence.

===Other functions===

Thus, all three terms being separate entities, an adjective or adverb can be in the positive degree but expressed in the negative, so that the sentence, ''This hummer does not seem to be eco-friendly'', has all negative, positive, and declarative properties.

J. L. Austin<ref name="Austin">{{cite web

|last=Austin

In fact, an exclamatory, imperative, as well as a question can be in the negative form: ''I can't do this!'', ''Don't touch me'', ''Don't you want to?''

|first=J. L.

|title=How to Do Things with Words

|edition=Second

|editor1=J. O. Urmson

|editor2=Marina Sbisà

|date=January 1975

|volume=

|issue=

|pages=

|isbn=9780674411524

|url=

|accessdate=

}}</ref>

discussed sentences that have "perlocutionary force": uttering them (at least

in the correct context) directly causes something to be or to occur.

For example, "I promise", "I warn", "I forgive" or "I resign". Such utterances

do not fit readily into any of the traditional sentence functions described above.

== See also ==

* [[Grammatical polarity]]

* [[Implicature]]

Line 91 ⟶ 72:

* [[Sentence (linguistics)]]

==References Notes ==

{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==

<references />

== Sources ==

* Laurie E. Rozakis, ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Style''. 2003. {{ISBN |978-1-59257-115-4}}

* George Yule, ''The Study of Language''. 2005. {{ISBN |978-0-521-54320-0}}

* Steven Pinker, ''The Language Instinct''. 1994 {{ISBN |0-06-095833-2}}

* https://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/clauses/discours.htm

[[Category:Semantics]]