Polystrate fossil: Difference between revisions

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{{short description|Creationist term for a fossil that extends through more than one geological stratum}}

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[[File:Lycopsid joggins mcr1.JPG|thumb|Ancient ''in situ'' [[w:lycopsid|lycopsid]], probably [[w:Sigillaria|''Sigillaria'']], with attached [[w:stigmaria|stigmarian roots]]. Specimen is from the Joggins Formation ([[Pennsylvanian (geology)|Pennsylvanian]]), Cumberland Basin, Nova Scotia.]]

[[Image:Stigmaria Bear Valley upright.jpg|thumb|Upright ''[[Sigillaria]]'' in dipping beds of [[Pennsylvanian (geology)|Pennsylvanian]] [[Llewellyn Formation]] in [[Bear Valley Strip Mine]], [[Northumberland County, Pennsylvania]]]]

A '''polystrate fossil''' is a [[fossil]] of a single organism (such as a [[tree trunk]]) that extends through more than one geological [[stratum]].<ref name="MacRae1997a">MacRae, A., 1997, [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/polystrate/trees.html ''"Polystrate" Tree Fossils'']. [http://www.talkorigins.org/ TalkOrigins Archive.]</ref> This term is typically applied to "fossil forests" of upright [[Petrified wood|fossil tree trunks]] and stumps that have been found worldwide, i.e. in the Eastern [[United States]], Eastern [[Canada]], [[England]], [[France]], [[Germany]], and [[Australia]], typically associated with coal-bearing strata.<ref name="DiMichele+2011a">DiMichele, W.A., and H.J. Falcon-Lang, 2011, [http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/handle/10088/15971 ''Pennsylvanian 'fossil forests' in growth position (T0 assemblages): origin, taphonomic bias and palaeoecological insights.''] Journal of the Geological Society, 168(2):585-605.</ref> Within [[Carboniferous]] coal-bearing strata, it is also very common to find what are called ''Stigmaria'' (root stocks) within the same stratum. [[Stigmaria]] are completely absent in post-Carboniferous strata, which contain either coal, polystrate trees, or both. The word ''polystrate'' is not a standard [[Geology|geological]] term. This term is typically found in [[creationist]] publications.<ref name="MacRae1997a"/><ref name="Gastaldo+1999a">Gastaldo, R.A. 1999. ''Debates on Autochthonous and Allochthonous Origin of Coal: Empirical Science versus the Diluvialists,'' In Manger, W.L., ed., The Evolution-Creation Controversy II: Perspectives on Science, Religion, and Geological Education, The Paleontological Society Papers, v. 5, p. 135-167.</ref>

This term is typically applied to "fossil forests" of upright [[Petrified wood|fossil tree trunks]] and stumps that have been found worldwide, i.e. in the [[Eastern United States]], Eastern [[Canada]], [[England]], [[France]], [[Germany]], and [[Australia]], typically associated with coal-bearing strata.<ref name="DiMichele+2011a">DiMichele, W.A., and H.J. Falcon-Lang, 2011, [http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/handle/10088/15971 ''Pennsylvanian 'fossil forests' in growth position (T0 assemblages): origin, taphonomic bias and palaeoecological insights.''] Journal of the Geological Society, 168(2):585-605.</ref> Within [[Carboniferous]] coal-bearing strata, it is also very common to find what are called ''Stigmaria'' (root stocks) within the same stratum. [[Stigmaria]] are completely absent in post-Carboniferous strata, which contain either coal, polystrate trees, or both.

==Geological explanation==

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Geologists have recognized innumerable fossil soils ([[paleosol]]s) throughout the strata containing upright fossils at Joggins in Nova Scotia, in the Yellowstone petrified forests, in the coal mines of the [[Black Warrior Basin]] of [[Alabama]], and at many other locations. The layer immediately underlying [[coal seam]]s, often called either "[[seatearth]]" or "[[underclay]]", typically either consists of or contains a paleosol. Paleosols are soils which were formed by [[subaerial]] [[weathering]] during periods of very slow or no accumulation of sediments. Later, renewed sedimentation buried these soils to create paleosols. These paleosols are identified on the basis of the presence of structures and microstructures unique to soils; animal burrows and molds of plant roots of various sizes and types; recognizable soil-profile development; and alteration of minerals by soil processes. In many cases, these paleosols are virtually identical to modern soils.

Geologists, who have long studied upright fossils found in sedimentary rocks exposed in various outcrops for decades, have described the upright fossil trees as being deeply rooted in place and typically rooted in recognizable [[paleosol]]s. This is in sharp contrast to the claims made by creationists such as Harold Coffin and N. A. Rupke. Geologists,Researchers such as Falcon<ref>Falcon-Lang, H.J., 2003a, ''Late Carboniferous dryland tropical vegetation, Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada'', Palaios 18:197– 211.</ref><ref>Falcon-Lang, H.J., 2003b, ''Early Mississippian lycopsid forests in a delta-plain setting at Norton, near Sussex, New Brunswick, Canada'', Journal of the Geological Society, London 161:969–981.</ref><ref name=falcon2005>Falcon-Lang, H.J., 2005, ''Small cordaitalean trees in a marine-influenced coastal habitat in the Pennsylvanian Joggins Formation, Nova Scotia'', Journal of the Geological Society 162(3): 485-500.</ref><ref name=falcon2006a>Falcon-Lang, H.J., 2006a, ''Latest Mid-Pennsylvanian tree-fern forests in retrograding coastal plain deposits, Sydney Mines Formation, Nova Scotia, Canada'', Journal of the Geological Society 163(1): 81-93.</ref><ref name=falcon2006b>Falcon-Lang, H.J., 2006b, ''Vegetation ecology of Early Pennsylvanian alluvial fan and piedmont environments in southern New Brunswick, Canada'', Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 233(1-2): 34-50.</ref> and Rygel et al.,<ref>Rygel, M.C., M.R. Gibling, and J.H. Calder, 2004, ''[[Vegetation-induced sedimentary structures]] from fossil forests in the Pennsylvanian Joggins Formation, Nova Scotia'', Sedimentology 51:531– 552.</ref> have published detailed field-sketches and pictures of upright tree-fossils with intact root systems, which are rooted within recognizable paleosols. In the case of the upright fossil trees of the [[Yellowstone National Park|Yellowstone]] petrified forests, geologists – again in sharp disagreement with creationists like Haroldit Coffinhas –been found that the upright fossil trees, except for relatively short stumps, are rooted in place within the underlying sediments. Typically, the sediments within which trees are rooted have paleosols developed within them.<ref name="Amidon, L. 1997"/><ref name=Retallack1981>Retallack, G.J., 1981, ''Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of Yellowstone fossil forest: Comment'', Geology 9:52-53.</ref><ref name=Retallack1997>Retallack, G.J., 1997, ''A Colour Guide to Paleosols.'' John Wiley and Sons. {{ISBN|0-471-96711-4}}</ref> Retallack (1981, 1997) has published pictures and diagrams of the Yellowstone upright fossil trees having intact root systems developed within paleosols found within these strata.<ref name=Retallack1981 /><ref name=Retallack1997 /><ref>Since 1997, geologists agree with Harold Coffin that his "organic levels" are not paleosols. Neither Harold Coffin nor other creationists discuss the layers which geologists currently recognize as being paleosols in their papers about the Yellowstone petrified forests. Geologists such as Amidon (1997) have documented the presence of structures, microstructures, profile development, and mineralogical alteration either characteristic or of consistent with a buried-soil profile within numerous thin layers, which are identified as paleosols, found within the strata containing Yellowstone petrified forests</ref>

===Formation by regeneration===

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===Formation by Carboniferous deglacial meltwater-pulses===

In addition, part of the Carboniferous Period was a period of extensive and thick continental [[ice sheet]]s. During the Carboniferous ice age, the repeated [[Glacial period|glacial]] – [[interglacial]] cycles caused major changes in the thickness and extent of continental ice sheets. When these ice sheets expanded in extent and thickness, [[eustatic sea level]] typically fell by over a {{convert|100|m|ft|sp=us}}. When these ice sheets shrank in extent and thickness, eustatic sea level typically rose again by typically over a {{convert|100|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name="Heckel1986a">Heckel, P.H., 1986. ''Sea-level curve for Pennsylvanian eustatic marine transgressive-regressive depositional cycles along midcontinent outcrop belt, North America.'' Geology, 14(4), pp.330-334.</ref><ref name="VeerversOthers1987a">Veervers, J.T. and Powell, C.M., 1987. ''Late Paleozoic glacial episodes in Gondwanaland reflected in transgressive-regressive depositional sequences in Euramerica.'' Geological Society of America Bulletin, 98(4), pp.475-487.</ref> As occurred during the [[Holocene]] Epoch for [[Meltwater pulse 1A]] and [[Meltwater pulse 1B]],<ref name="Gornitz2009a">Gornitz, V., 2009. ''Sea level change, post-glacial.'' In ''Encyclopedia of paleoclimatology and ancient environments'' (pp. 887-893). Springer Netherlands. In: Encyclopedia of paleoclimatology and ancient environments (Ed. V. Gornitz) pp. 887–893. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.</ref> brief episodes of rapid melting of Carboniferous, Gondwanan continental ice sheets likely caused very rapid rises in sea level that would have abruptly inundated low-lying coastal swamps and drowned the forests growing on them. Based on the sedimentology of roof strata of surface and underground coal mines and cyclothems containing the fossils of upright and ''[[in situ]]'' tree trunks, geologists proposed that the flooding of coastal swamp by [[Deglaciation|deglacial]] [[meltwater]] pulses resulted in the rapid flooding of coastal forests, particularly along preexisting coastal rivers and streams, over large areas of coastal swamp. During and after their submergence, upright trunks of drowned coastal forests were buried by tidally influenced sedimentation.<ref name="ArcherOthers2016a"/><ref name="CecilOthers2014a">Cecil, C.B., DiMichele, W.A. and Elrick, S.D., 2014. ''Middle and Late Pennsylvanian cyclothems, American Midcontinent: Ice-age environmental changes and terrestrial biotic dynamics.'' Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 346(7), pp.159-168.</ref>

===Association with marine fossils===