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{{Short description|Core group of ancient Hebrew scriptures}}
{{Redirect|
{{About|the Jewish text||Old Testament|and|Bible translations into Hebrew|and|Hebrew Bible (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox religious text
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{{Tanakh OT}}
The '''Hebrew Bible''' or '''Tanakh'''{{efn|Also spelled '''Tanach''' and '''Tenakh'''.}} ({{IPAc-en|t|ɑː|ˈ|n|ɑː|x}};<ref name=":0">[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tanach "Tanach"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304134849/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tanach |date=2016-03-04 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{Script/Hebrew|תַּנַ״ךְ|rtl=yes}} {{transl|hbo|tanaḵ}}, {{Script/Hebrew|תָּנָ״ךְ|rtl=yes}} {{transl|hbo|
The authoritative form of the modern Hebrew Bible used in [[Rabbinic Judaism]] is the
In addition to the Masoretic Text, modern biblical scholars seeking to understand the history of the Hebrew Bible use a range of sources.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jta.org/2014/05/13/news-opinion/united-states/scholars-seek-hebrew-bibles-original-text-but-was-there-one. |title=Scholars seek Hebrew Bible's original text – but was there one? |website=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |access-date=25 September 2015 |date=2014-05-13 |archive-date=2016-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105223020/http://www.jta.org/2014/05/13/news-opinion/united-states/scholars-seek-hebrew-bibles-original-text-but-was-there-one. |url-status=live }}</ref> These include the Septuagint, the [[Syriac language]] [[Peshitta]] translation, the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]], the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] collection, the [[Targum Onkelos]], and quotations from [[Rabbinic literature|rabbinic manuscripts]]. These sources may be older than the Masoretic Text in some cases and often differ from it.<ref>{{cite web |author-last1=Weiss|author-first1=Anthony|date=14 May 2014|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/controversy-lurks-as-scholars-suss-out-original-biblical-text/#ixzz31uFPqDC8 |title=Controversy lurks as scholars try to work out Bible's original text |website=The Times of Israel |access-date=25 September 2015 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925151526/http://www.timesofisrael.com/controversy-lurks-as-scholars-suss-out-original-biblical-text/#ixzz31uFPqDC8 |url-status=live }}</ref> These differences have given rise to the theory that yet another text, an [[Urtext (biblical studies)|Urtext]] of the Hebrew Bible, once existed and is the source of the versions extant today.<ref>Isaac Leo Seeligmann, Robert Hanhart, Hermann Spieckermann: ''The Septuagint Version of Isaiah and Cognate Studies'', Tübingen 2004, pp. 33–34.</ref> However, such an Urtext has never been found, and which of the three commonly known versions (Septuagint, Masoretic Text, Samaritan Pentateuch) is closest to the Urtext is debated.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shanks|first1=Herschel|title=Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingdea00shan|url-access=registration|year= 1992|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0679414483|page=[https://archive.org/details/understandingdea00shan/page/336 336]|edition= 1st}}</ref>
There are many similarities between the Hebrew Bible and the Christian [[Old Testament]]. The [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Old Testament
== Terminology ==
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{{Judaism |texts |width=22.0em}}
{{Further|Hebrew abbreviations|Abjad}}
''Tanakh'' is an [[acronym]], made from the first [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew letter]] of each of the
The three-part division reflected in the acronym ''Tanakh'' is well attested in the [[rabbinic literature]] dating from the medieval/Masoretic period.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://people.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/TalmudMap/MG.html|title=Mikra'ot Gedolot|website=people.ucalgary.ca|access-date=2022-09-09|archive-date=2022-08-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830130802/https://people.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/TalmudMap/MG.html|url-status=live}}</ref> During that period
=== Hebrew Bible ===
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Many [[biblical studies]] scholars advocate use of the term ''Hebrew Bible'' (or ''Hebrew Scriptures'') as a substitute for less-neutral terms with Jewish or Christian connotations (e.g., ''Tanakh'' or ''[[Old Testament]]'').<ref>{{Cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/25/magazine/the-new-old-testament.html | title = The New Old Testament | first = William | last = Safire | newspaper = The New York Times | date = 1997-05-25 | access-date = 2019-12-06 | archive-date = 2019-12-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191206110054/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/25/magazine/the-new-old-testament.html | url-status = live }}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/scriptures.html |title=From Hebrew Bible to Christian Bible: Jews, Christians and the Word of God |first=Mark |last=Hamilton |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=2007-11-19 |quote=Modern scholars often use the term 'Hebrew Bible' to avoid the confessional terms Old Testament and Tanakh. |archive-date=2018-06-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614021417/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/scriptures.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Society of Biblical Literature]]'s ''Handbook of Style'', which is the standard for major academic journals like the ''[[Harvard Theological Review]]'' and conservative Protestant journals like the ''[[Bibliotheca Sacra]]'' and the ''[[Westminster Theological Journal]]'', suggests that authors "be aware of the connotations of alternative expressions such as ... Hebrew Bible [and] Old Testament" without prescribing the use of either.<ref>{{cite book |title=The SBL Handbook of Style |publisher=Hendrickson |___location=Peabody, MA |year=1999 |editor1-first=Patrick H |editor1-last=Alexander |isbn=978-1-56563-487-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sblhandbookofsty0000unse/page/17 17 (section 4.3)] |url=https://archive.org/details/sblhandbookofsty0000unse/page/17 |display-editors=etal }} See [https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/SBLHS2_FAQ.pdf ''Society of Biblical Literature'': Questions Regarding Digital Editions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304190407/https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/SBLHS2_FAQ.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>
"Hebrew" refers to the original language of the books, but it may also be taken as referring to the Jews of the [[Second Temple period|Second Temple era]] and their descendants, who preserved the transmission of the Masoretic Text up to the present day.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |title=Scanning an Ancient Biblical Text That Humans Fear to Open |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/05/science/biblical-codes-morgan-library.html |date=January 5, 2018 |access-date=June 14, 2019 |archive-date=July 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706070231/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/05/science/biblical-codes-morgan-library.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Hebrew Bible includes small portions in [[Biblical Aramaic|Aramaic]] (mostly in the books of [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]), written and printed in [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic square-script]], which was adopted as the [[Hebrew alphabet]] after the [[Babylonian captivity | Babylonian exile]].
== Content ==
===Genres and themes===
The Tanakh includes a variety of genres, including narratives of events set in the past. The [[Torah]] ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]], [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] and [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]) contains legal material. The
Other books are examples of [[prophecy]]. In the prophetic books, a prophet denounces evil or predicts what God will do in the future. A prophet might also describe and interpret visions. The Book of Daniel is the only book in the Tanakh usually described as [[apocalyptic literature]]. However, other books or parts of books have been called proto-apocalyptic, such as Isaiah 24–27, Joel, and Zechariah 9–14.{{Sfn|Barton|2001|p=9}}
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A central theme throughout the Tanakh is [[monotheism]], worshiping one [[God in Judaism|God]]. The Tanakh was created by the [[Israelites]], a people who lived within the cultural and religious context of the [[ancient Near East]]. The [[religions of the ancient Near East]] were [[polytheistic]], but the Israelites rejected polytheism in favor of monotheism. Biblical scholar [[Christine Hayes]] writes that the Hebrew Bible was "the record of [the Israelites'] religious and cultural revolution".<ref>{{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Christine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKbkXYHxvlAC |title=Introduction to the Bible |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2012 |isbn=9780300188271 |page=3 |author-link=Christine Hayes}}</ref>
According to biblical scholar [[John Barton (theologian)|John Barton]], "[[Tetragrammaton|YHWH]] is consistently presented throughout the [Hebrew Scriptures] as the God who created the world, and as the only God with whom Israel is to be concerned".{{Sfn|Barton|2001|p=9}} This special relationship between God and Israel is described in terms of [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]]. As part of the covenant, God gives his people the [[Promised Land]] as an eternal possession. The God of the covenant is also a God of [[Redemption (theology)#Judaism|redemption]]. God liberates his people from Egypt and continually intervenes to save them from their enemies.{{Sfn|Barton|2001|pp=9–10}}
The Tanakh imposes [[Ethics in the Bible|ethical requirements]], including social justice and ritual purity {{Crossreference|(see [[Tumah and taharah]])}}. The Tanakh forbids the exploitation of widows, orphans, and other vulnerable groups. In addition, the Tanakh condemns murder, theft, bribery, corruption, deceitful trading, adultery, incest, bestiality, and homosexual acts. Another theme of the Tanakh is [[theodicy]], showing that God is just even though evil and suffering are present in the world.{{Sfn|Barton|2001|p=10}}
=== Narrative ===
The Tanakh begins with the [[Genesis creation narrative]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Collins |first=John J. |title=Introduction to the Hebrew Bible |publisher=Fortress Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-5064-4598-4 |edition=3rd |place=Minneapolis, US |page=13 |author-link=John J. Collins}}</ref> Genesis 12–50 traces Israelite origins to the [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]]: [[Abraham]], his son [[Isaac]], and grandson [[Jacob]]. God promises Abraham and his descendants blessing and land. The covenant God makes with Abraham is signified by [[Brit milah|male circumcision]]. The children of Jacob become the ancestors of the [[Twelve Tribes of Israel|twelve tribes of Israel]]. Jacob's son [[Joseph (Genesis)|Joseph]] is sold into slavery by his brothers, but he becomes a powerful man in Egypt. During a famine, Jacob and his family settle in Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carr |first=David M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p08lEAAAQBAJ |title=The Hebrew Bible: A Contemporary Introduction to the Christian Old Testament and the Jewish Tanakh |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2021 |isbn=9781119636670 |edition=2nd |pages=52–53 |author-link=David M. Carr}}</ref>
Jacob's descendants lived in Egypt for 430 years. After [[the Exodus]], the Israelites wander in the wilderness for 40 years.{{Sfn|Collins|2018|p=13}} God gives the Israelites the [[Law of Moses]] to guide their behavior. The law includes rules for both religious ritual and ethics {{Crossreference|(see [[Ethics in the Bible]])}}. This moral code requires justice and care for the poor, widows, and orphans. The biblical story affirms God's unconditional love for his people, but he still punishes them when they fail to live by the covenant.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjudaism0000good_z2n1 |title=A History of Judaism |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-846-14155-3 |page=38 |author-link=Martin Goodman (historian) |url-access=registration}}</ref>
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God leads Israel into the [[Promised Land]] of [[Canaan]],{{Sfn|Goodman|2017|p=38}} which they conquer after five years. For the next 470 years, the Israelites were led by [[Hebrew Bible judges|judges]].{{Sfn|Collins|2018|p=13}} In time, a new enemy emerged called the [[Philistines]]. They continued to trouble Israel when the prophet [[Samuel]] was judge (1 Samuel 4:1–7:1). When Samuel grew old, the people requested that he choose a king because Samuel's sons were corrupt and they wanted to be like other nations ([[1 Samuel 8]]). The Tanakh presents this negatively as a rejection of God's kingship; nevertheless, God permits it, and [[Saul]] of the [[tribe of Benjamin]] is [[anointed]] king. This inaugurates the united monarchy of the [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Kingdom of Israel]].{{Sfn|Carr|2021|p=62}}
An officer in Saul's army named [[David]] achieves great militarily success. Saul tries to kill him out of jealousy, but David successfully escapes (1 Samuel 16–29). After Saul dies fighting the Philistines ([[1 Samuel 31]]; [[2 Chronicles 10]]), the kingdom is divided between his son [[Ish-bosheth|Eshbaal]] and David (David ruled his [[tribe of Judah]] and Eshbaal ruled the rest). After Eshbaal's assassination, David was anointed king over all of Israel ([[2 Samuel]] 2–5).{{Sfn|Carr|2021|p=63}}
David captures the [[Jebusites|Jebusite]] city of [[Jerusalem]] ([[2 Samuel 5]]:6–7) and makes it his capital. Jerusalem's ___location between Judah in the southern hills and the northern Israelite tribes made it an ideal ___location from which to rule over all the tribes. He further increased Jerusalem's importance by bringing the [[Ark of the Covenant]] there from [[Shiloh (biblical city)|Shiloh]] ([[2 Samuel 6]]).{{Sfn|Carr|2021|p=60}} David's son [[Solomon]] built the [[Solomon's Temple|First Temple]] in Jerusalem.{{Sfn|Collins|2018|p=13}}
After Solomon's death, the united kingdom split into the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|northern Kingdom of Israel]] (also known as the Kingdom of Samaria) with its capital at [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]] and the southern [[Kingdom of Judah]] with its capital at Jerusalem.{{Sfn|Goodman|2017|p=23}} The Kingdom of Samaria survived for 200 years until it was conquered by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrians]] in 722 BCE. The Kingdom of Judah survived for longer, but it was conquered by the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Babylonians]] in 586 BCE. The Temple was destroyed, and many Judeans were [[Babylonian captivity|exiled to Babylon]]. In 539 BCE, Babylon was conquered by [[Cyrus the Great in the Bible|Cyrus the Great]] of Persia, who allowed the exiles to [[Return to Zion|return to Judah]]. Between 520 and 515 BCE, the Temple was rebuilt {{Crossreference|(see [[Second Temple]])}}.{{Sfn|Collins|2018|pp=13–14}}
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==Development==
=== Traditional attribution ===
Religious tradition ascribes [[Mosaic authorship|authorship of the Torah to Moses]]. In later Biblical texts, such as Daniel 9:11 and Ezra 3:2, it is referred to as the "[[Law of Moses|Torah (Law) of Moses]]".<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Schmid | first1 = Konrad | author-link1 = Konrad Schmid (theologian) | last2 = Schröter | first2 = Jens | title = The Making of the Bible: From the First Fragments to Sacred Scripture | publisher = Harvard University Press | translator-last = Lewis | translator-first = Peter | year = 2021 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0AlBEAAAQBAJ | isbn = 9780674269392 | page = 44}}</ref> However, the Torah itself credits Moses with writing only some specific sections.{{efn|See Exodus 17:14, 24:4, 34:28; Numbers 33:2; and Deuteronomy 31:9, 31:22.{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=43}}}} According to scholars{{who|date=November 2024}}, Moses would have lived in the [[2nd millennium BC|2nd millennium BCE]], but this was before the development of Hebrew writing{{cn|date=March 2025}}. The Torah is dated to the [[1st millennium BCE|1st millennium BCE]] after Israel and Judah had already developed as states. Nevertheless, "it is highly likely that extensive oral transmission of proverbs, stories, and songs took place during this period", and these may have been included in the Hebrew Bible.{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=44}} Elements of Genesis 12–50, which describes the [[patriarchal age]], and the Book of Exodus may reflect [[oral tradition]]s. In these stories, Israelite ancestors such as Jacob and Moses use [[Trickster|trickery]] and deception to survive and thrive.{{Sfn|Carr|2021|pp=51 & 56}}
King [[David]] ({{circa|1000 BCE}}) is credited as the author of at least 73 of the Biblical [[Psalms]]. His son, [[Solomon]], is identified as the author of [[Book of Proverbs]], [[Ecclesiastes]], and [[Song of Songs|Song of Solomon]]. The Hebrew Bible describes their reigns as a [[Golden Age|golden age]] when Israel flourished both culturally and militarily. However, there is no archeological evidence for this, and it is most likely a "retrospective extrapolation" of conditions under King [[Jeroboam II]] ({{reign|781|742}} BCE).{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=44–45}}
=== Before the exile ===
{{Further|Tradition history}}
Modern scholars{{who|date=November 2024}} believe that the ancient Israelites mostly originated from within Canaan. Their material culture was closely related to their Canaanite neighbors, and Hebrew was a [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite dialect]]. Archaeological evidence indicates Israel began as loosely organized tribal villages in the [[Geography of Israel#Central hills|hill country of modern-day Israel]] {{circa|1250|1000 BCE}}. During crises, these tribes formed temporary alliances. The [[Book of Judges]], written {{circa|600 BCE|lk=no}} (around 500 years after the events it describes), portrays Israel as a grouping of decentralized tribes, and the [[Deborah#The Song of Deborah|Song of Deborah]] in Judges 5 may reflect older oral traditions. It features archaic elements of Hebrew and a [[Twelve Tribes of Israel#Scholarly examination|tribal list]] that identifies Israel exclusively with the northern tribes.{{Sfn|Carr|2021|pp=37–38, 45, 42–49 & 54}}
By the 9th or 8th centuries BCE, the [[Scribe#Judaism|scribal]] culture of Samaria and Judah was sufficiently developed to produce biblical texts.{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=66}} The Kingdom of Samaria was more powerful and culturally advanced than the Kingdom of Judah. It also featured multiple cultic sites, including the sanctuaries at [[Bethel]] and [[Dan (ancient city)|Dan]].{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|pp=71 & 73}}
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Scholars estimate that the Jacob tradition (Genesis 25–35) was first written down in the 8th century BCE and probably originated in the north because the stories occur there. Based on the prominence given to the sanctuary at Bethel (Genesis 28), these stories were likely preserved and written down at that religious center. This means the Jacob cycle must be older than the time of King [[Josiah]] of Judah ({{reign|640|609 BCE}}), who pushed for the centralization of worship at Jerusalem.{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|pp=73–74}}
The story of Moses and the [[
Scholars believe [[Psalm 45]] could have northern origins since it refers to a king marrying a foreign princess, a policy of the [[Omrides]].{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=79}} Some psalms may have originated from the shrine in the northern city of Dan. These are the [[Sons of Korah (Bible)|Sons of Korah]] psalms, [[Psalm 29]], and [[Psalm 68]]. The city of Dan probably became an Israelite city during the reign of King [[Jeroboam II]] (781–742{{nbsp}}BCE). Before then, it belonged to [[Aram (region)|Aram]], and [[Psalm 20]] is nearly identical to an [[Aramaic]] psalm found in the 4th century BCE [[Papyrus Amherst 63]].{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=74–75}}
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[[File:Texts of the OT.svg|thumb|right|350px|The inter-relationship between various significant ancient manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible (some identified by their siglum). Mt being the Masoretic text. The lowermost text "(lost)" would be the [[Urtext (Biblical studies)|Urtext]].]]
There are various [[textual variants in the Hebrew Bible]] resulting from centuries of hand-copying. [[Sofer|Scribes]] introduced thousands of minor changes to the biblical texts. Sometimes, these changes were by accident. At other times, scribes intentionally added clarifications or theological material. In the Middle Ages, Jewish scribes produced the
Rabbi and Talmudic scholar [[Louis Ginzberg]] wrote in ''[[Legends of the Jews]]'', published in 1909, that the twenty-four book canon was fixed by Ezra and the scribes in the [[Second Temple period]].<ref>[[Louis Ginzberg|Ginzberg, Louis]] (1909). ''[[Legends of the Jews|The Legends of the Jews]] [http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/e-books/misc/Legends/Legends%20of%20the%20Jews.pdf Vol. IV : Chapter XI Ezra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313050820/http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/e-books/misc/Legends/Legends |date=2020-03-13 }}'' (Translated by [[Henrietta Szold]]) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.</ref>{{Failed verification|date=January 2024}} According to the [[Talmud]], much of the Tanakh was compiled by the men of the [[Great Assembly]] (''Anshei K'nesset HaGedolah''), a task completed in 450 BCE, and it has remained unchanged ever since.<ref>(Bava Batra 14b–15a, Rashi to Megillah 3a, 14a)</ref> The 24-book canon is mentioned in the [[Ecclesiastes Rabbah|Midrash Koheleth]] 12:12: ''Whoever brings together in his house more than twenty four books brings confusion''.<ref>[[Ecclesiastes Rabbah|Midrash Qoheleth]] 12:12</ref>
==Language and pronunciation==
The original [[writing system]] of the Hebrew text was an [[abjad]]: [[consonant]]s written with some applied vowel letters (''"[[Mater lectionis|matres lectionis]]"''). During the early [[Middle Ages]], scholars known as the
===Number of different words used===
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==Books==
The Tanakh consists of twenty-four books, counting as one book each [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel
===Torah===
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* {{lang|he-Latn|Bərē’šīṯ}} ({{lang|he|בְּרֵאשִׁית|rtl=yes}}, literally "In the beginning") – [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Šəmōṯ}} ({{lang|he|שְׁמֹות|rtl=yes}}, literally "The names of") – [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Vayyīqrā’}} ({{lang|he|וַיִּקְרָא|rtl=yes}}, literally "And He called") – [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Bəmīḏbar}} ({{lang|he|בְּמִדְבַּר|rtl=yes}}, literally "In the desert of") – [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Dəvārīm}} ({{lang|he|דְּבָרִים|rtl=yes}}, literally "Things" or "Words") – [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]
===Nevi'im===
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''Nevi'im'' ({{lang|he|נְבִיאִים|rtl=yes}} {{lang|he-Latn|Nəḇīʾīm}}, "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and [[Ketuvim]]. This division includes the books which cover the time from the entrance of the Israelites into the [[Land of Israel]] until the [[Babylonian captivity]] of Judah (the ''"period of prophecy"''). Their distribution is not chronological, but substantive.{{clarify|date=August 2024}}
The [[Nevi'im#Former Prophets ⋅|Former Prophets]] ({{lang|he|נביאים ראשונים |rtl=yes}} {{lang|he-Latn|Nevi'im Rishonim}}):
* {{lang|he-Latn|Yəhōšúaʿ}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|יְהוֹשֻעַ}}) – [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Šōfṭīm}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|שֹׁפְטִים}}) – [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
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* {{lang|he-Latn|Məlāḵīm}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|מְלָכִים}}) – [[Books of Kings|Kings]]
The [[Nevi'im#Latter Prophets|Latter Prophets]] ({{lang|he|נביאים אחרונים |rtl=yes}} {{lang|he-Latn|Nevi'im Aharonim}}):
* {{lang|he-Latn|Yəšaʿyāhū}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|יְשַׁעְיָהוּ}}) – [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Yīrməyāhū}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|יִרְמְיָהוּ}}) – [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
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====Poetic books====
{{Further|Ketuvim#Sifrei Emet}}
In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel [[wikt:stich#English|stichs]] in the verses, which are a function of their [[Biblical poetry|poetry]]. Collectively, these three books are known as {{lang|he-Latn|Sifrei Emet}} (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, {{lang|he|rtl=yes|איוב, משלי, תהלים}} yields {{lang|he-Latn|Emet}} {{lang|he|rtl=yes|אמ"ת}}, which is also the Hebrew for "[[truth]]").
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The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The [[Talmud]] gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.<ref name=bb14>[[Babylonian Talmud]], [[Bava Batra]] [https://www.sefaria.org/Bava_Batra.14b.11 14b]</ref> This order is roughly chronological (assuming traditional authorship).
In [[Tiberian Hebrew|Tiberian]]
===Number of books===
{{See also|Development of the Hebrew Bible canon}}
The Hebrew Bible is generally considered to consist of 24 books, but this number is somewhat arbitrary, as (for example) it regards 12 separate books of minor prophets as a single book.<ref name=niehoff>Darshan, G. [https://www.academia.edu/7021817/The_Twenty-Four_Books_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_and_Alexandrian_Scribal_Methods_in_M.R._Niehoff_ed._Homer_and_the_Bible_in_the_Eyes_of_Ancient_Interpreters_Between_Literary_and_Religious_Concerns_JSRC_16_Leiden_Brill_2012_pp._221_244 "The Twenty-Four Books of the Hebrew Bible and Alexandrian Scribal Methods,"], in: M.R. Niehoff (ed.), ''Homer and the Bible in the Eyes of Ancient Interpreters: Between Literary and Religious Concerns'' (JSRC 16), Leiden: Brill 2012, pp. 221–44</ref> The traditional rabbinic count of 24 books appears in the [[Talmud]]<ref name=bb14/> and numerous works of [[midrash]].<ref>[[Exodus Rabbah]] 41:5; [[Numbers Rabbah]] 13:15, 14:4, 14:18, 15:22, 18:21; [[Song of Songs Rabbah]] 4:11; [[Ecclesiastes Rabbah]] 12:11, 12:12; [[Tanhuma]] Ki Tisa 16:2, Korach 12:1, Vayelech 1:1; [[Pesikta Rabbati]] 3:1; [[Lekach Tov]], Genesis 49:8; [[Minor tractate|Kallah Rabbati]] 10:14, etc.</ref> In several early nonrabbinic sources, the number of books given is 22.<ref>[[Josephus]], [[Against Apion]], 1:8; also [[2 Esdras]] 12:45, [[Origen]]</ref> This number corresponds to the letters of the [[Hebrew alphabet]]; according to [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] there were 27 books, corresponding to the alphabet with final letter forms (''sofiot'').
The count of 24 was said to be equal to the number of [[priestly divisions]].<ref>[https://www.daat.ac.il/daat/tanach/shelanu/shelanu.htm התנ"ך שלנו]</ref> According to a modern source, the number of books may be related to the division of the [[Iliad]] and [[Odyssey]] into 24 books, corresponding to the letters of the Greek alphabet. Both the Bible and Homer formed "foundational literature" of their respective cultures, studied by children and considered distillations of the society's values. The division of the Bible into 22 books may be a conversion of the Greek system to the Hebrew alphabet, while the division into 24 may be an adoption of the "perfect" number 24 as befitting the Bible's stature in Jewish eyes.<ref name=niehoff/>
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{{Further|Jewish English Bible translations|Septuagint|Targum|Old Testament|Bible translations}}
* ''[[Jewish Publication Society of America Version|The Holy Scriptures According to the Masoretic Text: A New Translation with the aid of Previous Versions & with the Constant Consultation of Jewish Authorities]]'' was published in 1917 by the Jewish Publication Society. It was replaced by their ''Tanakh'' in 1985
* ''[[
* ''Tanach: The Stone Edition'', Hebrew with English translation, Mesorah Publications, 1996, {{ISBN|0-89906-269-5}}, named after benefactor [[Irving I. Stone]].
* ''[[Tanakh Ram]]'', an ongoing translation to Modern Hebrew (2010–) by Avraham Ahuvya (RAM Publishing House Ltd. and Miskal Ltd.)
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623085742/https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/03/magazine/the-bibles-inspired-art.html
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}}</ref> by rabbis teaching in Orthodox [[yeshiva]]s. Some classical rabbinic commentators, such as [[Abraham
The [[Modern Orthodox Judaism|Modern Orthodox Jewish]] community allows for a wider array of biblical criticism to be used for biblical books outside of the Torah, and a few Orthodox commentaries now incorporate many of the techniques previously found in the
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== Influence on Jewish identity ==
Multiple scholars have noted the importance of the Hebrew Bible in developing the [[
Several scholars argue that key sections of the Hebrew Bible were deliberately composed during specific historical periods to construct and consolidate a distinct Israelite national consciousness. E. Theodore Mullen, a key proponent of this idea, argued in his first monograph that the "[[Deuteronomist|Deuteronomistic History]]"— including Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings—was composed during the [[Babylonian captivity]] to reinforce a threatened Judean identity. In another work, he focused on the Tetrateuch—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers—arguing that these books were compiled during the Persian era to forge a unified ethnic identity. This material, when combined with Deuteronomy, formed the Pentateuch, and its inclusion in the Deuteronomistic History created what [[David Noel Freedman]] termed the "primary history."<ref name=":1" />
According to [[Adrian Hastings]], the study of sacred texts, including the Hebrew Bible, was a foundational element that allowed the Jews—whom he describes as the "true proto-nation"—to preserve their national identity during the two millennia following the loss of their political entity in the first century CE. This enduring connection to their heritage enabled Jews to be perceived as a nation rather than merely an ethnic group, ultimately paving the way for the rise of [[Zionism]] and the eventual establishment of the State of Israel.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Hastings |first=Adrian |title=The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-521-59391-3 |___location=Cambridge |pages=186–187}}</ref>
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