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{{Short description|Collection and manipulation of items of data to produce meaningful information}}

'''Data processing''' is any [[TWATS]] [[process]] that converts [[TWATS]] into [[information]]. The processing is usually assumed to be automated and running on an a [[TWAT]], [[minicomputer]], [[TWATS]], or [[personal computer]]. Because data are most useful to human beings when well-presented collectively as information that informs human beings to a greater degree than the multitude of raw data convey individually, data-processing systems are now often referred to as [[information system]]s to shift the emphasis, although both perform the same conversion: data-processing systems typically manipulate raw data into information and likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to produce information as output.

{{other uses}}

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'''Data processing''' is the [[data collection|collection]] and manipulation of digital data to produce meaningful information.<ref>{{cite book|last=French|first=Carl|title=Data Processing and Information Technology (10th ed.) |year=1996 |publisher=Thomson |isbn=1844801004 |page=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zVCdg7Tg6-AC&q=inauthor%3A%22Carl%20French%22&pg=PR2}}</ref> Data processing is a form of ''information processing'', which is the modification (processing) of information in any manner detectable by an observer.<ref group="note">Data processing is distinct from ''[[word processing]]'', which is manipulation of text specifically rather than data generally. {{cite web|title=data processing|url=http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/data_processing.html|work=Webopedia|date=September 1996|access-date=June 24, 2013}}</ref>

== Functions ==

To better market their profession, a [[computer programmer]] or a [[systems analyst]] that might once have referred, such as during the 1970s, to the computer systems that they produce as data-processing systems more often than not nowadays refers to the computer systems that they produce by some other term that includes the word [[information]], such as information systems, [[information technology]] systems, or [[management information systems]].

Data processing may involve various processes, including:

In the context of data processing, [[data]] are defined as [[number]]s or [[character (computing)|characters]] that represent [[measurement]]s from the real world. A single [[datum]] is a single measurement from the real world. Measured information is then algorithmically derived and/or logically deduced and/or statistically calculated from multiple data. ([[evidence]]). [[Information]] is defined as either a meaningful answer to a [[query]] or a meaningful stimulus that can cascade into further queries.

* [[Data validation|Validation]] &ndash; Ensuring that supplied data is correct and relevant.

More generally, the term ''data processing'' can apply to any process that converts data from one format to another, although ''data [[conversion]]'' would be the more logical and correct term. From this perspective, data processing becomes the process of converting [[information]] into [[data]] and also the converting of data back into information. The distinction is that conversion doesn't require a question (query) to be answered. For example, [[information]] in the form of an string of characters forming a sentence in English is converted or [[encode]]d from a keyboard's key-presses as represented by hardware-oriented integer codes into [[ASCII]] integer codes after which it may be more easily processed by a computer—not as merely raw, amorphous integer data, but as a meaningful character in a [[natural language]]'s set of [[grapheme]]s—and finally converted or [[decode]]d to be displayed as characters, represented by a [[font]] on the computer display. In that example we can see the stage-by-stage conversion of the presence of and then absence of [[electrical conductivity]] in the key-press and subsequent release at the keyboard from raw substantially-meaningless integer hardware-oriented data to evermore-meaningful information as the processing proceeds toward the human being.

* [[Sorting]] &ndash; "arranging items in some sequence and/or in different sets."

* [[Summary statistic|Summarization (statistical)]] or [[Automatic summarization|(automatic)]] &ndash; reducing detailed data to its main points.

* [[Aggregate data|Aggregation]] &ndash; combining multiple pieces of data.

* [[Statistical analysis|Analysis]] &ndash; the "collection, [[organization]], analysis, interpretation and presentation of data."

* [[Operational reporting|Reporting]] &ndash; list detail or summary data or computed information.

* [[Data classification (business intelligence)|Classification]] &ndash; separation of data into various categories.

== History ==

Conversely, that simple example for pedagogical purposes here is usually described as an [[embedded system]] (for the software resident in the keyboard itself) or as (operating-)[[systems programming]], because the information is derived from a hardware interface and may involve overt control of the hardware through that interface by an operating system. Typically control of hardware by a device driver manipulating [[ASIC]] or [[FPGA]] registers is not viewed as part of data processing proper or information systems proper, but rather as the ___domain of embedded systems or (operating-)[[systems programming]]. Instead, perhaps a more conventional example of the established practice of using the term ''data processing'' is that a business has collected numerous data concerning an aspect of its operations and that this multitude of data must be presented in meaningful, easy-to-access presentations for the managers who must then use that information to increase revenue or to decrease cost. That conversion and presentation of data as information is typically performed by a data-processing [[software application|application]].

The [[United States Census Bureau]] history illustrates the evolution of data processing from manual through electronic procedures.

When the ___domain from which the data is harvested is a science or an engineering, data processing and information systems are considered too broad of terms and the more specialized term [[data analysis]] is typically used, focusing on the highly-specialized and highly-accurate algorithmic derivations and statistical calculations that are less often observed in the typical general business environment. This divergence of culture is exhibited in the typical numerical representations used in data processing versus numerical; data processing's measurements are typically represented by [[integer]]s or by [[fixed-point]] or [[binary-coded decimal]] representations of [[real number]]s whereas the majority of data analysis's measurements are often represented by [[floating-point]] representation of real numbers.

=== Manual data processing ===

Practically all naturally occurring processes can be viewed as examples of [[data processing system]]s where "real world" information in the form of [[pressure]], [[light]], etc. are converted by human [[observer]]s into [[electrical]] signals in the [[nervous system]] as the [[sense]]s we recognise as [[touch]], [[sound]], and [[vision]]. Even the interaction of non-living systems may be viewed in this way as rudimentary [[information processing system]]s. Conventional usage of the terms ''data processing'' and ''information system''s restricts their use to refer to the algorithmic derivations, logical deductions, and statistical calculations that recur perennially in general business environments, rather than in the more expansive sense of all conversions of real-world measurements into real-world information in, say, an organic biological system or even a scientific or engineering system.

Although widespread use of the term ''data processing'' dates only from the 1950s,<ref name=DPuse>{{cite book|title=Google N gram viewer|url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=data+processing&year_start=1800&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=|access-date=June 26, 2013}}</ref> data processing functions have been performed manually for millennia. For example, [[bookkeeping]] involves functions such as posting transactions and producing reports like the [[balance sheet]] and the [[cash flow statement]]. Completely manual methods were augmented by the application of [[mechanical calculator|mechanical]] or electronic [[calculator]]s. A person whose job was to perform calculations manually or using a calculator was called a "[[Human computer|computer]]."

==See also==

*[[Data entry clerk]]

The [[1890 United States census]] schedule was the first to gather data by individual rather than [[household]]. A number of questions could be answered by making a check in the appropriate box on the form. From 1850 to 1880 the Census Bureau employed "a system of tallying, which, by reason of the increasing number of combinations of classifications required, became increasingly complex. Only a limited number of combinations could be recorded in one tally, so it was necessary to handle the schedules 5 or 6 times, for as many independent tallies."<ref name=Truesdell65>{{cite book|author1-link=Leon E. Truesdell|last=Truesdell|first=Leon E.|title=The development of punch card tabulation in the Bureau of the Census, 1890|year=1965|publisher=United States Department of Commerce|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=MGZqAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.PR1}}</ref> "It took over 7 years to publish the results of the 1880 census"<ref name=Bohme91>{{cite book|last1=Bohme|first1=Frederick|last2=Wyatt|first2=J. Paul|last3=Curry|first3=James P.|title=100 Years of Data Processing: The Punchcard Century|year=1991|publisher=United States Bureau of the Census|url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=uCeu4sHRLfgC&rdid=book-uCeu4sHRLfgC&rdot=1}}</ref> using manual processing methods.

=== Automatic data processing ===

[[Category:Data management]]

[[el:&#917;&#960;&#949;&#958;&#949;&#961;&#947;&#945;&#963;&#943;&#945; &#916;&#949;&#948;&#959;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#969;&#957;]]

The term ''[[Electronic data processing|automatic data processing]]'' was applied to operations performed by means of [[unit record equipment]], such as [[Herman Hollerith]]'s application of [[punched card]] equipment for the [[1890 United States census]]. "Using Hollerith's punchcard equipment, the Census Office was able to complete tabulating most of the 1890 census data in 2 to 3 years, compared with 7 to 8 years for the 1880 census. It is estimated that using Hollerith's system saved some $5 million in processing costs"<ref name=Bohme91 /> in 1890 dollars even though there were twice as many questions as in 1880.

[[fi:Tietojenkäsittely]]

[[pt:Processamento de dados]]

=== Computerized data processing ===

Computerized data processing, or [[electronic data processing]] represents a later development, with a computer used instead of several independent pieces of equipment. The Census Bureau first made limited use of [[electronic computers]] for the [[1950 United States census]], using a [[UNIVAC I]] system,<ref name=Truesdell65 /> delivered in 1952.

=== Other developments ===

The term ''data processing'' has mostly been subsumed by the more general term ''[[information technology]]'' (IT).<ref>{{cite book|title=Google N gram viewer|url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=information+technology&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cinformation%20technology%3B%2Cc0|access-date=April 28, 2018}}</ref> The older term "data processing" is suggestive of older technologies. For example, in 1996 the ''[[Data Processing Management Association]]'' (DPMA) changed its name to the ''Association of Information Technology Professionals''. Nevertheless, the terms are approximately synonymous.

== Applications ==

=== Commercial data processing ===

{{main|Electronic data processing}}

Commercial data processing involves a large volume of input data, relatively few computational operations, and a large volume of output. For example, an insurance company needs to keep records on tens or hundreds of thousands of policies, print and mail bills, and receive and post payments.

=== Data analysis ===

{{main|Data analysis}}

In science and engineering, the terms ''data processing'' and ''[[information system]]s'' are considered too broad, and the term ''data processing'' is typically used for the initial stage followed by a [[data analysis]] in the second stage of the overall data handling.

Data analysis uses specialized [[algorithm]]s and [[statistical]] calculations that are less often observed in a typical general business environment. For data analysis, software suites like [[SPSS]] or [[SAS (software)|SAS]], or their free counterparts such as [[DAP (software)|DAP]], [[gretl]], or [[PSPP]] are often used. These tools are usually helpful for processing various huge data sets, as they are able to handle enormous amount of statistical analysis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=V |first1=Jalajakshi |last2=A n |first2=Myna |date=2022-06-01 |title=Importance of statistics to data science |journal=Global Transitions Proceedings |series=International Conference on Intelligent Engineering Approach(ICIEA-2022) |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=326–331 |doi=10.1016/j.gltp.2022.03.019 |issn=2666-285X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Systems==

A '''data processing system''' is a combination of [[machine]]s<!-- "data processing" is specific to machines, there is no data but storage processing in nature, see the OED -->, people, and processes that for a set of [[Input/output|inputs]] produces a defined set of [[Input/output|outputs]]. The inputs and outputs are interpreted as [[data]], [[fact]]s, [[information]] etc. depending on the interpreter's relation to the system.

A term commonly used synonymously with ''data or storage (codes) processing system'' is ''[[Information system#Types of information system|information system]]''.<ref name=Ralston>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Computer Science 4th ed.|editor=Anthony Ralston |display-editors=etal |year=2000|publisher=Nature Publishing Group|page=865}}</ref> With regard particularly to [[electronic data processing]], the corresponding concept is referred to as '''electronic data processing system'''.

===Examples===

====Simple example====

A very simple example of a data processing system is the process of maintaining a check register. Transactions&mdash; checks and deposits&mdash; are recorded as they occur and the transactions are summarized to determine a current balance. Monthly the data recorded in the register is reconciled with a hopefully identical list of transactions processed by the bank.

A more sophisticated record keeping system might further identify the transactions&mdash; for example deposits by source or checks by type, such as charitable contributions. This information might be used to obtain information like the total of all contributions for the year.

The important thing about this example is that it is a ''system'', in which, all transactions are recorded consistently, and the same method of bank reconciliation is used each time.

====Real-world example====

This is a [[flowchart]] of a data processing system combining manual and computerized processing to handle [[accounts receivable]], billing, and [[general ledger]]

[[File:Stockbridge system flowchart example.jpg]]

== See also ==

*[[Big data]]

*[[Computation]]

*[[Computer science]]

*[[Decision-making software]]

*[[Information Age]]

*[[Information and communications technology]]

*[[Information technology]]

*[[Computational science|Scientific computing]]

== Notes ==

{{reflist|group=note}}

== External links ==

{{wikiquote}}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==

*Bourque, Linda B.; Clark, Virginia A. (1992) ''Processing Data: The Survey Example''. (Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, no. 07-085). [[SAGE Publications]]. {{ISBN|0-8039-4741-0}}

*Levy, Joseph (1967) ''[http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/pdf/ibm/punchedCard/Training/Levy_Punched_Card_Data_Processing_1967.pdf Punched Card Data Processing]''. [[McGraw-Hill Book Company]].

{{Data}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Data processing| ]]

[[Category:Computer data]]