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{{original research|date=July 2017}}
The '''structure of the [[Perl]] programming language''' encompasses both the syntactical rules of the language and the general ways in which programs are organized. Perl's design philosophy is expressed in the commonly cited motto "[[there's more than one way to do it]]". As a [[programming paradigm|multi-paradigm]], dynamically [[type system|typed]] language, Perl allows a great degree of flexibility in program design. Perl also encourages modularization; this has been attributed to the component-based design structure of its Unix roots{{when|date=November 2018}},<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Orwant | first1 = Jon | title = Games, diversions, and Perl culture: best of the Perl journal | year = 2003
== Basic syntax ==
In Perl, the minimal [["Hello,
<
print "Hello,
</syntaxhighlight>
This [[Input/output|prints]] the [[String (computer science)|string]] ''Hello,
<
say "Hello,
</syntaxhighlight>
An entire Perl program may also be specified as a command-line parameter to Perl, so the same program can also be executed from the command line (example shown for Unix):
<
$ perl -e 'print "Hello,
</syntaxhighlight>
The canonical form of the program is slightly more verbose:
<
#!/usr/bin/env perl
print "Hello,
</syntaxhighlight>
The hash mark character introduces a [[comment (computer programming)|comment]] in Perl, which runs up to the end of the line of code and is ignored by the compiler (except on Windows). The comment used here is of a special kind: it’s called the [[Shebang (Unix)|shebang]] line. This tells Unix-like operating systems to find the Perl interpreter, making it possible to invoke the program without explicitly mentioning <code>perl</code>. (Note that, on [[Microsoft Windows]] systems, Perl programs are typically invoked by associating the <code>.pl</code> [[Filename extension|extension]] with the Perl interpreter. In order to deal with such circumstances, <code>perl</code> detects the shebang line and parses it for switches.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://perldoc.perl.org/perlrun.html | title = perlrun | accessdate = 2011-01-08 | publisher = perldoc.perl.org - Official documentation for the Perl programming language}}</ref>)
The second line in the canonical form includes a semicolon, which is used to separate statements in Perl. With only a single statement in a block or file, a separator is unnecessary, so it can be omitted from the minimal form of the program—or more generally from the final statement in any block or file. The canonical form includes it, because it is common to terminate every statement even when it is unnecessary to do so, as this makes editing easier: code can be added to, or moved away from, the end of a block or file without having to adjust semicolons.
Version 5.10 of Perl introduces a <code>say</code> function that implicitly appends a newline character to its output, making the minimal "Hello
<
use 5.010; # must be present to import the new 5.10 functions, notice that it is 5.010 not 5.10
say 'Hello,
</syntaxhighlight>
==Data types==
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{| class="wikitable"
|-bol
! Type
! Sigil
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|-
|[[Scalar (computing)|Scalar]]
|{{tt|$}}
|{{code|$foo}}
|A single value; it may be a number, a [[String (computer science)|string]], a filehandle, or a [[Reference (computer science)|reference]].
|-
|[[Array data type|Array]]
|{{tt|@}}
|{{code|@foo}}
|An ordered collection of scalars.
|-
|[[Associative array|Hash]]
|{{tt|%}}
|{{code|%foo}}
|A map from strings to scalars; the strings are called ''keys'', and the scalars are called ''values''.
|-
|[[
|{{CNone|none}}
|{{code|$foo}} or {{code|FOO}}
|An opaque representation of an open file or other target for reading, writing, or both.
|-
|[[Subroutine]]
|{{tt|&}}
|{{code|&foo}}
|A piece of code that may be passed arguments, be executed, and return data.
|-
|[[Perl language structure#
|{{tt|*}}
|{{code|*foo}}
|The [[symbol table]] entry for all types with the name 'foo'.
|}
===Scalar values===
String values (literals) must be enclosed by quotes. Enclosing a string in double quotes allows the values of variables whose names appear in the string to automatically replace the variable name (or be '''[[
For example, if <code>$name</code> is <code>"Jim"</code>:
To include a double quotation mark in a string, precede it with a backslash or enclose the string in single quotes. To include a single quotation mark, precede it with a backslash or enclose the string in double quotes.
Strings can also be quoted with the <code>q</code> and <code>qq</code> quote-like operators:
Finally, multiline strings can be defined using [[here document]]s:
<
$multilined_string = <<EOF;
This is my multilined string
note that I am terminating it with the word "EOF".
EOF
</syntaxhighlight>
Numbers (numeric constants) do not require quotation. Perl will convert numbers into strings and vice versa depending on the context in which they are used. When strings are converted into numbers, trailing non-numeric parts of the strings are discarded. If no leading part of a string is numeric, the string will be converted to the number 0. In the following example, the strings <code>$n</code> and <code>$m</code> are treated as numbers. This code prints the number '5'. The values of the variables remain the same. Note that in Perl, <code>+</code> is always the numeric addition operator. The string concatenation operator is the period.
<
$n = '3 apples';
$m = '2 oranges';
print $n + $m;
</syntaxhighlight>
Functions are provided for the [[rounding]] of fractional values to integer values: <code>int</code> chops off the fractional part, rounding towards zero; <code>POSIX::ceil</code> and <code>POSIX::floor</code> round always up and always down, respectively.
Perl also has a boolean context that it uses in evaluating conditional statements. The following values all evaluate as false in Perl:
<
$false = 0; # the number zero
$false = 0.0; # the number zero as a float
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$false = '0'; # the string zero
$false = ""; # the empty string
$false = (); # the empty list
$false = undef; # the return value from undef
$false = 2-3+1
</syntaxhighlight>
All other (non-zero evaluating) values evaluate to true. This includes the odd self-describing literal string of "0 but true", which in fact is 0 as a number, but true when used as a boolean. All non-numeric strings also have this property, but this particular string is truncated by Perl without a numeric warning. A less explicit but more conceptually portable version of this string is '{{mono|0E0}}' or '{{mono|0e0}}', which does not rely on characters being evaluated as 0, because '0E0' is literally zero times ten to the power zero. The empty hash <code>{}</code> is also true; in this context <code>{}</code> is not an empty block, because <code>perl -e 'print ref {}'</code> returns <code>HASH</code>.
Evaluated boolean expressions are also scalar values. The documentation does not promise which ''particular'' value of true or false is returned. Many boolean operators return 1 for true and the empty-string for false. The
If either 1 or 0 are specifically needed, an explicit conversion can be done using the [[conditional operator]]:
<
my $real_result = $boolean_result ? 1 : 0;
</syntaxhighlight>
===Array values===
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An [[Array data type|array value]] (or list) is specified by listing its elements, separated by commas, enclosed by parentheses (at least where required by operator precedence).
<
@scores = (32, 45, 16, 5);
</syntaxhighlight>
The qw() quote-like operator allows the definition of a list of strings without typing of quotes and commas. Almost any delimiter can be used instead of parentheses. The following lines are equivalent:
<
@names = ('Billy', 'Joe', 'Jim-Bob');
@names = qw(Billy Joe Jim-Bob);
</syntaxhighlight>
The split function returns a list of strings, which are split from a string expression using a delimiter string or regular expression.
<
@scores = split(',', '32,45,16,5');
</syntaxhighlight>
Individual elements of a list are accessed by providing a numerical index in square brackets. The scalar [[sigil (computer programming)|sigil]] must be used. Sublists (array slices) can also be specified, using a range or list of numeric indices in brackets. The array sigil is used in this case. For example, <code>$month[3]</code> is <code>"April"</code> (the first element in an array has an index value of 0), and <code>@month[4..6]</code> is <code>("May", "June", "July")</code>.
===Hash values===
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|first= Peter
|title= Pro Perl
|url=
|accessdate= 2010-08-03
|series= Pro to Expert Series
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|isbn= 978-1-59059-438-4
|page= 64
|quote= [
}}
</ref>). The following lines are equivalent:
<
%favorite = ('joe', "red", 'sam', "blue");
%favorite = (joe => 'red', sam => 'blue');
</syntaxhighlight>
Individual values in a hash are accessed by providing the corresponding key, in curly braces. The <code>$</code> sigil identifies the accessed element as a scalar. For example, {{code|$favorite{joe} }} equals {{code|'red'}}. A hash can also be initialized by setting its values individually:
<
$favorite{joe} = 'red';
$favorite{sam} = 'blue';
$favorite{oscar} = 'green';
</syntaxhighlight>
Multiple elements may be accessed using the <code>@</code> sigil instead (identifying the result as a list). For example,
{{code|@favorite{'joe', 'sam'} }} equals {{code|('red', 'blue')}}.
===Filehandles===
Filehandles provide read and write access to resources.
Originally, filehandles could only be created with package variables, using the ALL_CAPS convention to distinguish it from other variables.
===Typeglob values===
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A typeglob value is a symbol table entry. The main use of typeglobs is creating symbol table aliases. For example:
<
*PI = \3.141592653; # creating constant scalar $PI
*this = *that; # creating aliases for all data types 'this' to all data types 'that'
</syntaxhighlight>
===Array functions===
The number of elements in an array can be determined either by evaluating the array in scalar context or with the help of the <code>$#</code> sigil. The latter gives the index of the last element in the array, not the number of elements. The expressions scalar({{code|@array}}) and (<code>$#array + 1</code>) are equivalent.
===Hash functions===
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There are a few functions that operate on entire hashes. The ''keys'' function takes a hash and returns the list of its keys. Similarly, the ''values'' function returns a hash's values. Note that the keys and values are returned in a consistent but arbitrary order.
<
# Every call to each returns the next key/value pair.
# All values will be eventually returned, but their order
# cannot be predicted.
while (($name, $address) = each %addressbook) {
}
# Similar to the above, but sorted alphabetically
foreach my $next_name (sort keys %addressbook) {
}
</syntaxhighlight>
==Control structures==
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It has block-oriented control structures, similar to those in the C, [[JavaScript]], and [[Java (programming language)|Java]] programming languages. Conditions are surrounded by parentheses, and controlled blocks are surrounded by braces:
''label'' while ( ''cond'' ) {
''label'' while ( ''cond'' ) {
''label'' for ( ''init-expr'' ; ''cond-expr'' ; ''incr-expr'' ) {
''label'' foreach ''var'' ( ''list'' ) {
''label'' foreach ''var'' ( ''list'' ) {
if ( ''cond'' ) {
if ( ''cond'' ) {
if ( ''cond'' ) {
Where only a single statement is being controlled, statement modifiers provide a more-concise syntax:
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Perl also has two implicit looping constructs, each of which has two forms:
''results'' = grep {
''results'' = grep ''expr'', ''list''
''results'' = map {
''results'' = map ''expr'', ''list''
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Up until the 5.10.0 release, there was no [[switch statement]] in Perl 5. From 5.10.0 onward, a multi-way branch statement called <code>given</code>/<code>when</code> is available, which takes the following form:
use v5.10; <u># must be present to import the new 5.10 functions</u>
given ( ''expr'' ) { when ( ''cond'' ) {
Syntactically, this structure behaves similarly to [[switch statement]]s found in other languages, but with a few important differences. The largest is that unlike switch/case structures, given/when statements break execution after the first successful branch, rather than waiting for explicitly defined break commands. Conversely, explicit
For those not using Perl 5.10, the Perl documentation describes a half-dozen ways to achieve the same effect by using other control structures. There is also a Switch module, which provides functionality modeled on
Perl includes a <code>goto label</code> statement, but it is rarely used. Situations where a <code>goto</code> is called for in other languages don't occur as often in Perl, because of its breadth of flow control options.
There is also a <code>goto &sub</code> statement that performs a [[tail call]]. It terminates the current subroutine and immediately calls the specified <code>''sub''</code>. This is used in situations where a caller can perform more-efficient [[Call stack|stack]] management than Perl itself (typically because no change to the current stack is required), and in deep recursion, tail calling can have substantial positive impact on performance, because it avoids the overhead of scope/stack management on return.
==Subroutines==
[[Subroutine]]s are defined with the <code>sub</code> keyword and are invoked simply by naming them. If the subroutine in question has not yet been declared, invocation requires either parentheses after the function name or an ampersand ('''&''') before it. But using '''&''' without parentheses will also implicitly pass the arguments of the current subroutine to the one called, and using '''&''' with parentheses will bypass prototypes.
<
# Calling a subroutine
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# Defining a subroutine
sub foo {
foo; # Here parentheses are not required
</syntaxhighlight>
A list of arguments may be provided after the subroutine name. Arguments may be scalars, lists, or hashes.
<
foo $x, @y, %z;
</syntaxhighlight>
The parameters to a subroutine do not need to be declared as to either number or type; in fact, they may vary from call to call. Any validation of parameters must be performed explicitly inside the subroutine.
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Elements of <code>@_</code> may be accessed by subscripting it in the usual way.
<
$_[0], $_[1]
</syntaxhighlight>
However, the resulting code can be difficult to read, and the parameters have [[Evaluation strategy#Call by reference|pass-by-reference]] semantics, which may be undesirable.
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One common idiom is to assign <code>@_</code> to a list of named variables.
<
</syntaxhighlight>
This provides mnemonic parameter names and implements [[Evaluation strategy#Call by value|pass-by-value]] semantics. The <code>my</code> keyword indicates that the following variables are lexically scoped to the containing block.
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Another idiom is to shift parameters off of <code>@_</code>. This is especially common when the subroutine takes only one argument or for handling the <code>$self</code> argument in object-oriented modules.
<
my $x = shift;
</syntaxhighlight>
Subroutines may assign <code>@_</code> to a hash to simulate named arguments; this is recommended in ''[[Perl Best Practices]]'' for subroutines that are likely to ever have more than three parameters.<ref>
Damian Conway, ''[http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/perlbp/chapter/ch09.pdf Perl Best Practices] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918134430/http://oreilly.com/catalog/perlbp/chapter/ch09.pdf |date=2011-09-18 }}'', p.182</ref>
<
sub function1 {
}
function1( x => 23 );
</syntaxhighlight>
Subroutines may return values.
<
return 42, $x, @y, %z;
</syntaxhighlight>
If the subroutine does not exit via a <code>return</code> statement,
The returned expression is evaluated in the calling context of the subroutine; this can surprise the unwary.
<
sub list { (4, 5, 6) }
sub array { @x = (4, 5, 6); @x }
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@x = list; # returns (4, 5, 6)
@x = array; # returns (4, 5, 6)
</syntaxhighlight>
A subroutine can discover its calling context with the <code>wantarray</code> function.
<
sub either {
}
$x = either; # returns "Oranges"
@x = either; # returns (1, 2)
</syntaxhighlight>
===Anonymous functions===
{{Excerpt|Examples of anonymous functions|Perl 5|subsections=yes}}
==Regular expressions==
The Perl language includes a specialized syntax for writing [[regular expression]]s (RE, or regexes), and the interpreter contains an engine for matching strings to regular expressions. The regular-expression engine uses a [[backtracking]] algorithm, extending its capabilities from simple pattern matching to string capture and substitution. The regular-expression engine is derived from regex written by [[Henry Spencer]].
The Perl regular-expression syntax was originally taken from Unix Version 8 regular expressions. However, it diverged before the first release of Perl and has since grown to include far more features. Many other languages and applications are now adopting [[
Regular-expression syntax is extremely compact, owing to history. The first regular-expression dialects were only slightly more expressive than [[Glob (programming)|globs]], and the syntax was designed so that an expression would resemble the text that it matches.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}} This meant using no more than a single punctuation character or a pair of delimiting characters to express the few supported assertions. Over time, the expressiveness of regular expressions grew tremendously, but the syntax design was never revised and continues to rely on punctuation. As a result, regular expressions can be cryptic and extremely dense.
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===Uses===
The <code>m//</code> (match) operator introduces a regular-expression match. (If it is delimited by slashes, as in all of the examples here,
<
$x =~ /abc/;
</syntaxhighlight>
evaluates to true [[if and only if]] the string <code>$x</code> matches the regular expression <code>abc</code>.
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The <code>s///</code> (substitute) operator, on the other hand, specifies a search-and-replace operation:
<
$x =~ s/abc/aBc/; # upcase the b
</syntaxhighlight>
Another use of regular expressions is to specify delimiters for the <code>split</code> function:
<
@words = split /,/, $line;
</syntaxhighlight>
The <code>split</code> function creates a list of the parts of the string that are separated by what matches the regular expression. In this example, a line is divided into a list of its own comma-separated parts, and this list is then assigned to the <code>@words</code> array.
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Perl regular expressions can take ''modifiers''. These are single-letter suffixes that modify the meaning of the expression:
<
$x =~ /abc/i; # case-insensitive pattern match
$x =~ s/abc/aBc/g; # global search and replace
</syntaxhighlight>
Because the compact syntax of regular expressions can make them dense and cryptic, the <code>/x</code> modifier was added in Perl to help programmers write more-legible regular expressions. It allows programmers to place whitespace and comments ''inside'' regular expressions:
<
$x =~ /
a # match 'a'
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c # then followed by the 'c' character
/x;
</syntaxhighlight>
====Capturing====
Portions of a regular expression may be enclosed in parentheses; corresponding portions of a matching string are ''captured''. Captured strings are assigned to the sequential built-in variables <code>$1, $2, $3,
<
$x =~ /a(.)c/; # capture the character between 'a' and 'c'
</syntaxhighlight>
Captured strings <code>$1, $2, $3,
Perl regular expressions also allow built-in or user-defined functions to apply to the captured match, by using the <code>/e</code> modifier:
<
$x = "Oranges";
$x =~ s/(ge)/uc($1)/e; # OranGEs
$x .= $1; # append $x with the contents of the match in the previous statement: OranGEsge
</syntaxhighlight>
==Objects==
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There are many ways to write [[Object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] code in Perl. The most basic is using "blessed" [[Reference (computer science)|references]]. This works by identifying a reference of any type as belonging to a given package, and the package provides the methods for the blessed reference. For example, a two-dimensional point could be defined this way:
<
sub Point::new {
# Here, Point->new(4, 5) will result in $class being 'Point'.
# It's a variable to support subclassing (see the perloop manpage).
my ($class, $x, $y) = @_;
bless [$x, $y], $class;
}
sub Point::distance {
my ($self, $from) = @_;
my ($dx, $dy) = ($$self[0] - $$from[0], $$self[1] - $$from[1]);
sqrt($dx * $dx + $dy * $dy);
}
</syntaxhighlight>
This class can be used by invoking <code>new()</code> to construct instances, and invoking <code>distance</code> on those instances.
<
my $p1 = Point->new(3, 4);
my $p2 = Point->new(0, 0);
print $p1->distance($p2);
</syntaxhighlight>
Many modern Perl applications use the [[Moose (Perl)|Moose]] object system.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}} Moose is built on top of Class::MOP, a meta-object protocol, providing complete introspection for all Moose-using classes. Thus you can ask classes about their attributes, parents, children, methods, etc. using a simple API.
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An example of a class written using the MooseX::Declare<ref>[http://search.cpan.org/perldoc?MooseX::Declare MooseX::Declare documentation]</ref> extension to Moose:
<
use MooseX::Declare;
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}
}
</syntaxhighlight>
This is a class named <code>Point3D</code> that extends another class named <code>Point</code> explained in [[Moose (Perl)#Examples|Moose examples]]. It adds to its base class a new attribute <code>z</code>, redefines the method <code>set_to</code> and extends the method <code>clear</code>.
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
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* [http://perlmonks.org/ PerlMonks] A community committed to sharing Perl knowledge and coding tips.
[[Category:Perl]]▼
[[Category:Articles with example Perl code]]
▲[[Category:Perl]]
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