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Fixing some of your that/which confusion. Because you don't know how to use these words, a lot of your logic is indecipherable. I've fixed as much as I can, and have time for. |
→MMN and ERANKoelsch, S. (2009). "Music-syntactic Processing and Auditory Memory – Similarities and Differences between ERAN and MMN". Psychophysiology, 46(1): 179-190.: move ref out of heading |
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When analysing the regularities and structure of [[music]] as well as the processing of music in the [[brain]], certain findings lead to the question
▲When analysing the regularities and structure of [[music]] as well as the processing of music in the [[brain]], certain findings lead to the question, if music is based on a [[syntax]] that could be compared with [[linguistic syntax]]. To get closer to this question it is necessary to have a look at the basic aspects of syntax in [[language]], as language unquestionably presents a complex syntactical system. If music has a matchable syntax, noteworthy equivalents to basic aspects of linguistic syntax have to be found in musical structure. Claiming that syntax is a fundamental element of music, it is interesting to know, if there are also similarities in processing linguistic and '''musical syntax''' in the brain. By implication the processing of music in comparison to language could also give information about the structure of music.
==Comparison to linguistic syntax==
Syntax in general can be referred to as a study of the principles and rules needed for the construction of a language or as a term in particular describing these principles and rules for a special language.
===Linguistic syntax – three principles
Linguistic syntax is especially marked by its structural richness, which becomes apparent in its multi layered organization as well as in the strong relationship between syntax and meaning. That is that there are special linguistic syntactic principles that define how the language is formed out of different subunits, such as words out of [[morphemes]], phrases out of words and sentences out of phrases. Furthermore, linguistic syntax is featured by the fact that a word can take on abstract [[grammatical functions]] that are less defined through properties of the word itself and more through the context and structural relations. This is for example that every [[noun]] can be used as a [[subject (grammar)|subject]], [[object (grammar)|object]] or [[indirect object]], but without a sentence as the normal context of a word, no statement about its [[grammatical function]] can be made. At last, linguistic syntax is marked by abstractness. This means that only conventional structural relations and not psychoacoustic relationships are the basis for the linguistic syntax.<ref name=Patel2008>Patel, A.D. (2008). Music, Language, and the Brain. Oxford University Press, USA</ref>
===Musical syntax
Concerning musical syntax these three aspects of richness in linguistic syntax as well as the abstractness should be found in music too, if one wants to claim that music has a comparable syntax. An annotation that has to be made concerns the fact that most of the studies dealing with musical syntax are confined to the consideration of Western European tonal music. Thus this article can also only focus on [[tonality|Western tonal music]].<ref name=Patel2008/>
====Multilayered organization====
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=====Tension and resolution=====
Searching for other aspects of hierarchical structure of music there is a controversial discussion, if the organization of [[Tension (music)|tension]] and [[Resolution (music)|resolution]] in music can be described as hierarchical structure or only as a purely sequential structure. According to
The question concerning the kind of structure that features tension and resolution in music is linked very close to the relationship between order and meaning in music. Considering tension and resolution as one possible kind of meaning in music a hierarchical structure would imply that a change of order of musical elements would have an influence on the meaning of the music.
====Abstractness====
The last aspect to examine is the [[abstraction|abstractness]] of linguistic syntax and its correlate in music. There are two contradicting
All in all the consideration of syntax in music and language shows, that music has a syntax comparable to the linguistic syntax especially concerning a great complexity and a hierarchical organization. Nevertheless, it has to be emphasized, that musical syntax is not a simple variant of linguistic syntax, but a similar complex system with its own substance. That means that it would be the wrong way just to search for musical analogies of linguistic syntactic entities such as nouns or verbs.
==Neuronal processing of musical and linguistic syntax==
Investigating the neuronal processing of musical syntax can serve two proposed aspects.'''<ref>Patel, A.D. (2003). Language, music, syntax and the brain]. Nature Neuroscience. 6(7):674-681</ref>'''
===Processing of music and musical syntax===
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(1)Primarily, a tonal centre has to be detected out of the first chords of a sequence. Often the first chord is interpreted as the tonal centre of a sequence and a reevaluation is necessary, if the first chord has another harmonic function.
(2)Successive chords are related to this tonal centre concerning their [[harmonic distance]] from the tonal centre.
(3)As described above (Does music have a syntax?), music has a hierarchical structure in terms of pitch organization and organization of tensioning and releasing in music. Pitch organization concerning chords means, that in a musical phrase the tonic is the most stable chord and experienced as the resting point. The dominant and subdominant anon are more stable than the submediant and the supertonic. The progression of chords in time forms a tonal structure based on pitch organization, in which moving away from the tonic is perceived as tensioning and moving towards the tonic is experienced as releasing. Therefore, hierarchical relations may convey organized patterns of meaning.
(4)Concerning harmonic aspects of major-minor tonal music, Musical syntax can be characterized by statistical regularities in the succession of chord functions in time, that is probabilities of chord transitions. As these regularities are stored in a [[long-term memory]], predictions about following chords are made automatically, when listening to a musical phrase.
====MMN and ERAN====
Source:<ref>Koelsch, S. (2009). "[http://www.stefan-koelsch.de/papers/Koelsch_2009_Psychophys_ERAN_MMN_Review.pdf Music-syntactic Processing and Auditory Memory – Similarities and Differences between ERAN and MMN]". Psychophysiology, 46(1): 179-190.</ref> The violation of these automatically made predictions lead to the observation of so-called [[Event-related potential|ERPs]] (event related potential, a stereotyped electrophysiological response to an internal or external stimulus). Two forms of ERPs can be detected in the context of processing music. One is the [[Mismatch negativity|MMN]] (mismatch negativity), which has first been investigated only with physical deviants like [[frequency]], [[sound intensity]], [[timbre]] deviants (referred to as [[phMMN]]) and could now also be shown for changes of abstract auditory features like tone pitches (referred to as [[afMMN]]). The other one is the so-called [[Electroencephalography|ERAN]] (early right anterior negativity), which can be elicited by syntactic irregularities in music. Both the ERAN and the MMN are ERPs indicating a mismatch between predictions based on regularities and actually experienced acoustic information. As for a long time it seemed to be, that the ERAN is a special variant of the MMN, the question arises, why they are told apart today. There are several differences between the MMN and the ERAN found in the last years:
=====Differences – occurrence=====
Even though music syntactic regularities are often simultaneously acoustical similar and music syntactic irregularities are often simultaneously acoustical different, an ERAN but not an MMN can be elicit, when a chord does not represent a physical but a syntactic deviance. To demonstrate this, so-called "Neapolitan sixth chords" are used. These are consonant chords when played solitary, but which are added into a musical phrase of in which they are only distantly related to the harmonic context. Added into a chord sequence of five chords, the addition of a [[Neapolitan sixth chord]] at the third or at the fifth position evokes different amplitudes of ERANs in the [[EEG]] with a higher [[amplitude]] at the fifth position. Nevertheless, when creating a chord sequence in which the [[Neapolitan chord]] at the fifth position is music-syntactically less irregular than a Neapolitan chord at the third position, the amplitude is higher at the third position (see figure 4...). In opposition to the MMN, a clear ERAN is also elicited by using syntactically irregular chords, which are acoustically more similar to a proceeding harmonic context than syntactically regular chords. Therefore, the MMN seems to be based on an on-line establishment of regularities. That means, that the regularities are extracted on-line from the acoustic environment. In opposition, the ERAN rests upon representations of music-syntactic regularities which exist in a [[long-term memory]] format and which are learned during early childhood.
=====Differences – development=====
This is represented in the development of the ERAN and MMN. The ERAN cannot be verified in newborn babies, whereas the MMN can actually be demonstrated in [[fetus]]. In two-year-old children, the ERAN is very small, in five-year-old children a clear ERAN is found, but with a longer latency than in adults. With the age of 11 years children show an ERAN similar to ERANs in adults. Out of these observation the thesis can be built that the MMN is essential for the establishment and maintenance of representations of the acoustic environment and for processes of the [[auditory scene analysis]]. But only the ERAN is completely based on learning to build up a structural model, which is established with reference to representations of syntactic regularities already existing in a long-term memory format. Considering effects of [[training]] both the ERAN and the MMN can be modulated by training.
=====Differences – neural sources=====
Differences between the ERAN and the MMN also exist in the [[neural sources]] for the main contributions to the ERPs. The sources for the ERAN are located in the [[pars opercularis]] of the [[inferior fronto-lateral cortex]] (inferior [[Brodmann's area]] with contributions from the ventrolateral [[premotor cortex]] and the [[anterior superior temporal gyrus]], whereas the MMN receives its main contributions from and within the vicinity of the [[primary auditory cortex]] with additional sources in the [[frontal cortex|frontal cortical areas]]. Therefore, the sources for the ERAN basically lie in the frontal cortex whereas the sources for the MMN are located in the [[temporal lobe]]. Other hints for this thesis emerge from the fact that under a [[propofol]] sedation which mainly
=====Processes to elicit the MMN or ERAN=====
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(1)First, a separation of sound sources, an extraction of sound features and the establishment of representations of auditory objects of the incoming acoustic input have to be made. The same processes are required for the MMN and ERAN.
(2)For the MMN regularities are filtered on-line out of the input to create a model of the acoustic environment. At this point, there is a difference to the ERAN as for the ERAN representations of regularities already exist in a long-term memory format and the incoming sound is integrated into a pre existent model of [[musical form|musical structure]].
(3)According to the model of musical structure, predictions concerning forthcoming auditory events are formed. This process is similar for the ERAN and for the MMN.
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(4)At least a comparison between the actually incoming sound and the predictions based on the model is made. This process is partly the same for the MMN and the ERAN as well.
=== Comparison of the processing of musical and linguistic syntax===
Source:<ref name=Patel2008/> As the ERAN is similar to an ERP called [[Early Left Anterior Negativity|ELAN]] which can be elicited by violation of linguistic syntax it seems to be obvious that the ERAN really represents syntactic processing. Deduced from this thought an interaction between music-syntactic and language-syntactic processing would be very likely.There are different possibilities in [[neuroscience]] to approach to an answer to the question of an overlap between the neuronal processing of linguistic and musical syntax.
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Strong evidence for the existence of this overlap comes from studies, in which music-syntactic and a linguistic-syntactic irregularities were presented simultaneously. They showed an interaction between the ERAN and the [[LAN]] (left anterior negativity;ERP which is elicited by linguistic-syntactic irregularities). The LAN elicited was reduced when an irregular word was presented simultaneously with an irregular chord compared to the condition when an irregular word was presented with a regular chord. Contrary to this finding the phMMN elicited by frequency deviants did not interact with the LAN.
From this facts it can be reasoned that the ERAN relies on neural resources related to syntactic processing (Koelsch 2008). Furthermore, they give strong evidence for the thesis, that there is an overlap between the processing of musical and linguistic syntax and therefore that syntactic operations (musical as well as linguistic) are modular.
==References==
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