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{{Short description|Signed communication systems used with spoken English}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2018}}
'''Manually Coded English''' ('''MCE''') is an umbrella term referring to a number of [[Constructed language|invented]] [[Manual communication|manual codes]] intended to visually represent the exact grammar and morphology of spoken [[English language|English]]. Different codes of MCE vary in the levels of adherence to spoken English grammar, morphology, and syntax.<ref name=":04">{{Citation |last1=Meier |first1=Richard P. |title=Phonological structure in signed languages |date=2002-10-24 |work=Modality and Structure in Signed and Spoken Languages |pages=143–162 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511486777.002 |access-date=2024-03-18 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80385-4 |last2=Cormier |first2=Kearsy |last3=Quinto-Pozos |first3=David|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511486777.002 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> MCE is typically used in conjunction with direct spoken English.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Hands & Voices |url=https://handsandvoices.org/index.htm |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=handsandvoices.org }}</ref>
==Manually coded
Manually coded
==Use in communication==
Although some research suggests that experience can improve the degree to which the information coded in English (morphologically as well as syntactically) is successfully communicated manually, especially by learners who are hearing and/or already fluent in spoken English, multiple studies have identified a number of potential concerns about the use of MCE systems in place of a natural language. The morphological structure of nearly all MCE systems is very different from the structure of documented sign languages. As a result, deaf children exposed only to MCE acquire the artificially created English-like [[bound morphology]] of MCE systems later than their hearing peers. Additionally, deaf children being taught MCE show an "anomalous" pattern of use with these morphemes. For example, they are frequently analyze morphemes that are bound in English, such as "-ing," as free morphemes, separating these morphemes from the contexts they are bound to in English and placing them elsewhere in a construction, producing sentences that are judged as ungrammatical by hearing English users.<ref name=":04"/> Notably, neither typically developing hearing children acquiring spoken English nor deaf children acquiring ASL as a first language display these patterns of anomalous syntactic acquisition.<ref>{{Cite book |date=2015-12-01 |editor-last=Marschark |editor-first=Marc |editor2-last=Spencer |editor2-first=Patricia Elizabeth |title=The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190241414.001.0001 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190241414.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-024141-4 }}</ref>
Another potential issue with MCE
In English-speaking countries, some users of Deaf sign languages will [[code-switch]] into a form of MCE when conversing with someone whose dominant language is English, or when quoting something from English, although [[contact sign]]ing may be more common. MCE is also sometimes favored by some hearing people, for whom a manual version of their own language is perceived as easier to learn than a deaf sign language. However, multiple studies suggest that many hearing users of MCE systems may struggle to communicate effectively or comprehensively using these systems.<ref name=":5"/>
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The use of MCE in deaf education is controversial. Contemporary deaf education can follow one or a number of educational philosophies and reform efforts, including education in the local natural deaf sign language, education in a colonial sign language, [[Bilingual–bicultural education|bilingual-bicultural]], [[Total communication|Total Communication]], a manually coded system based on the ambient spoken language (such as MCE), or [[oralism]].
One major obstacle to the utility and enforcement of the use of MCE is the criteria used to evaluate it. Multiple researchers note that MCE use by deaf children acquiring it as a first language is typically evaluated according to its adherence to citation forms of spoken English (i.e., MCE utterances are evaluated as if they were spoken English utterances) rather than its intelligibility as a form of communication or a language. Moreover, many studies which evaluate the competence of hearing teachers of the deaf in MCE communication do not evaluate the extent to which deaf students understand what their teachers are expressing. These teachers reported avoiding using spoken English words or constructions that they did not know how to express in MCE, limiting their overall language use. While many studies have found MCE to be comprehensible to those familiar with the code, fewer have attempted to evaluate whether it is equivalently suitable for first language acquisition, given the frequency of morpheme deletion or ellipsis.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Maxwell |first=Madeline M. |date=1990 |title=Simultaneous Communication: The State of the Art & Proposals for Change |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/18/article/507082 |journal=Sign Language Studies |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=333–390 |doi=10.1353/sls.1990.0019 |issn=1533-6263|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
In a study of [[Prelingual deafness|prelingually deaf]] children taught exclusively using MCE, [[Samuel James Supalla|S. Supalla]] documented that these individuals displayed spontaneous (without prior exposure), ASL-like innovations. Specifically, rather than using the MCE morphemes designed to mark [[
Finally, the ethics of MCE use is also a matter of contention. ASL is a minority language in North America. The majority of deaf people are born to hearing parents, and are not exposed to ASL from a young age. Many
==Types==
===Used globally===
====Fingerspelling====
{{main|Fingerspelling}}
[[Fingerspelling]] uses different signs for each letters of the [[alphabet]]. As with written versions of spoken language, certain [[
Exclusive fingerspelling is rarely used for communication. It still has some possible currency in some [[deafblind]] settings (see [[tactile signing]]). Exclusive fingerspelling has a place in the history of deaf education; in the US it is known as the [[#Rochester method|Rochester method]] (see below). Elderly deaf people in the UK and Australia may also use a lot of fingerspelling relative to their younger counterparts as a result of their education.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schembri |first1=Adam |last2=Johnston |first2=Trevor |date=2007 |title=Sociolinguistic Variation in the Use of Fingerspelling in Australian Sign Language: A Pilot Study |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26190652 |journal=Sign Language Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=319–347 |jstor=26190652 |issn=0302-1475}}</ref>
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====Contact sign====
{{main|Contact sign}}
Rather than being a form of MCE, [[contact sign]] is a blend of a local [[Deaf Sign Language]] and English. This [[contact language]] can take place anywhere on a continuum of intermediate stages, from very 'English-like' to very 'Deaf-language-like'; signers from these two different language backgrounds will often meet somewhere in the middle. Because of contact sign's standing as a bridge between two distinct languages, it is used differently by each individual depending on their knowledge of English and of the deaf sign language. The term ''contact sign'' has largely replaced the earlier name ''Pidgin Sign English'' (PSE) because this form of signing does not display the features linguists expect of a [[pidgin]].
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====Cued speech====
{{main|Cued speech}}
Cued speech is not traditionally referred to as a form of MCE, in part because it does not use borrowed or invented signs in an attempt to convey English. Rather, cued speech employs the use of "cuems" (eight handshapes intended to represent consonant phonemes and four placements around the face intended to represent vowel phonemes, combined with mouth movements) to represent auditory elements of the language being cued in a visual manner.<ref name="Metzger2010">{{Cite book |last1=Metzger |first1=Melanie |last2= Fleetwood | first2= Earl |chapter=Cued language: What deaf native cuers perceive of Cued Speech |editor=C. LaSasso, K. Crain and
▲Cued speech is not traditionally referred to as a form of MCE, in part because it does not use borrowed or invented signs in an attempt to convey English. Rather, cued speech employs the use of "cuems" (eight handshapes intended to represent consonant phonemes and four placements around the face intended to represent vowel phonemes, combined with mouth movements) to represent auditory elements of the language being cued in a visual manner.<ref name="Metzger2010">{{Cite book |last1=Metzger |first1=Melanie |last2= Fleetwood | first2= Earl |chapter=Cued language: What deaf native cuers perceive of Cued Speech |editor=C. LaSasso, K. Crain and J. Leybaert |title=Cued Speech and cued language for deaf and hard of hearing children |date=2010 |___location=San Diego, California |pages=53–66}}</ref> Cued languages are a distinct class of visual communication.<ref name="Metzger2010|>{{cite book |last1=Metzger |first1=Melanie |last2= Fleetwood | first2= Earl |title=Cued language structure: an analysis of cued American English based on linguistic principles |date=1998 |publisher=Calliope Press |___location=Silver Spring, Maryland}}</ref> Cued speech has been adapted for languages and dialects around the world.
===In North America===
====Seeing Essential English/Morphemic Signing System====
SEE-1 was the first American manual English code, developed in the 1960s and 70s by David Anthony, a teacher of deaf and disabled children. Anthony identified a list of proposed basic English words, less than half of which he identified American Sign Language (ASL) signs for, as well as a number of slightly different English words which ASL represented similarly with "only minor" stress and movement variations. Conversely, some English words could be expressed with multiple different ASL signs. Additionally, ASL, unlike English, is a [[zero copula]] language, so does not have lexical signs corresponding to English copulas like "is" and "are".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Luetke-Stahlman |first1=Barbara |last2=Milburn |first2=Wanda O. |date=1996 |title=A History of Seeing Essential English (SEE I) |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/18/article/382415 |journal=American Annals of the Deaf |volume=141 |issue=1 |pages=29–33 |doi=10.1353/aad.2012.0001 |pmid=8901351 |issn=1543-0375|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In SEE1, all [[compound words]] are formed as separate signs – instead of using the ASL sign for "butterfly", SEE1 places the signs for "butter" and "fly" in sequential order. Many signs from ASL are initialized in SEE1 – the ASL sign for "have" is signed with the B handshape in SEE1.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Rosenberg |first=Sheldon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-iNs9cUFiUC&dq=%22seeing+essential+english%22+butterfly&pg=PA180 |title=Advances in Applied Psycholinguistics |date=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-30027-8 }}</ref> Nielson et al. argue that SEE-1/MSS is a poor representation of English because it has only 14 bound morphemes in its citation form, noting that it has not been well-studied since the 1990s, and as of the paper's publishing in 2016, was only in use in Amarillo, Texas.<ref name=":22"/>
====Signing Exact English (SEE-2/SEE)====
{{main|Signing Exact English}}
====Signed English (SE) – American====
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The [[Paget Gorman Sign System]], also known as Paget Gorman signed speech (PGSS) or Paget Gorman systematic sign language, was originated in Britain by Sir Richard Paget in the 1930s and developed further by Lady Grace Paget and Dr [[Pierre Gorman]] to be used with children with speech or communication difficulties, such as deaf children. It is a grammatical sign system which reflects normal patterns of English. The system uses 37 basic signs and 21 standard hand postures, which can be combined to represent a large vocabulary of English words, including word endings and verb tenses. The signs do not correspond to natural signs of the [[Deaf community]].
The system was widespread in Deaf schools in the UK from the 1960s to the 1980s, but since the emergence of [[British Sign Language]] and the BSL-based [[Signed English]] in deaf education, its use is now largely restricted to the field of speech and language disorder.<ref>{{Citation |last1=CRYSTAL |first1=DAVID |title=Contrived Sign Language |date=1978 |work=Sign Language of the Deaf |pages=162 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-625150-0.50010-1 |access-date=2024-04-27 |publisher=Elsevier |last2=CRAIG |first2=ELMA|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-625150-0.50010-1 |isbn=978-0-12-625150-0 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
===Elsewhere===
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