Associativity-based routing: Difference between revisions

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'''Associativity-Based Routing'''<ref>{{cite |title="Associativity-based routing for ad hoc mobile networks" |url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=YTwSsH4AAAAJ&citation_for_view=YTwSsH4AAAAJ:d1gkVwhDpl0C}}</ref><ref>{{cite |title="A novel distributed routing protocol to support ad-hoc mobile computing" |url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=YTwSsH4AAAAJ&citation_for_view=YTwSsH4AAAAJ:2osOgNQ5qMEC}}</ref><ref name="auto">[[Chai Keong Toh]] Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless Networks, Prentice Hall Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-0-13-007817-9</ref><ref>{{cite |title="Long-lived ad-hoc routing based on the concept of Associativity" |url=https://scholar.google.com/citationsview_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=YTwSsH4AAAAJ&citation_for_view=YTwSsH4AAAAJ:YsMSGLbcyi4C}}</ref> (commonly known as ABR) is a mobile routing protocol invented for [[wireless ad hoc networks]].

{{COI|date=September 2018}}

ABR was invented in 1993, filed for a USA patent in 1996, and granted the patent in 1999. ABR was invented by [[Chai Keong Toh]]

{{more citations needed|date=September 2018}}

while doing his Ph.D. at Cambridge University. In the 1990s, our Internet is still largely wired. Toh was working on a different

}}

Internet - that of a rapidly deployable, infrastructureless, self-organizing, self-configuring mobile Internet. The challenges in such a network

is mobility of nodes and link dynamics. Toh's prime argument is that there is no point in choosing a node to route packets if the route is unstable or going to be broken soon. So, he introduced a new routing metric (known as associativity ticks) and the concept of associativity, i.e., link stability among nodes over TIME and SPACE. Hence, ABR was born.

'''Associativity-based routing'''<ref>{{cite journal |first=Chai-Keong |last=Toh |title=Associativity-based routing for ad hoc mobile networks |journal=Wireless Personal Communications |date=March 1997 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=103–139 |doi=10.1023/A:1008812928561 |s2cid=14335563 |url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=YTwSsH4AAAAJ&citation_for_view=YTwSsH4AAAAJ:d1gkVwhDpl0C|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |title=A novel distributed routing protocol to support ad-hoc mobile computing |journal=Proceedings of the IEEE Fifteenth Annual International Phoenix Conference on Computers and Communications |first=Chai-Keong |last=Toh |date=March 1996 |url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=YTwSsH4AAAAJ&citation_for_view=YTwSsH4AAAAJ:2osOgNQ5qMEC}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite book |first=Chai-Keong |last=Toh |title=Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless Networks |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |date=December 2001 |isbn=978-0-13-007817-9}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Long-lived ad-hoc routing based on the concept of Associativity, IETF Draft 1999 |url=https://www.ietf.org/proceedings/46/I-D/draft-ietf-manet-longlived-adhoc-routing-00.txt}}</ref> (commonly known as '''ABR''') is a mobile routing protocol invented for [[wireless ad hoc network]]s, also known as [[mobile ad hoc network]]s (MANETs) and [[wireless mesh network]]s. ABR was invented in 1993, filed for a [[U.S. patent]] in 1996, and granted the patent in 1999. ABR was invented by [[Chai Keong Toh]] while doing his Ph.D. at Cambridge University.

==Explanation==

==Route discovery phase==

In the early 1990s, the Internet is still largely wired. To achieve anytime anywhere computing, computers must be able to

connect to each other wirelessly and automatically. The [[Internet Protocol]] at that time did not address mobility, and the formation

of an rapidly deployable mobile Internet. The underlying protocols for Internet were TCP/UDP/IP. Those protocols do not support

spontaneous network creation, and do not handle dynamics due to mobility of computers. The assumption was end host are static host,

and they do not move. Another assumption was the network is wired (with copper wires or fiber).

ABR has three phases. The first phase is the route discovery phase. When a user initiates to transmit data, the protocol will intercept the request and broadcast a search packet over the wireless interfaces. As the search packet propagates node to node, node identity and stability information are appended to the packet. When the packet eventually reaches the destination node, it would have received all the information describing the path from source to destination. When that happens, the destination then chooses the best route (because there may be more than one path from the source to the destination) and sends a REPLY back to the source node, over the chosen path.

Since existing Internet protocols cannot support ad hoc mobile computing, a new mobile Internet is need. This calls for a new network

layer software that will enable anytime and anywhere mobile computing, while at the same time, retains compatibility with IP/UDP/TCP

protocols already present in the wired Internet. ABR is an on-demand routing protocol, i.e., routes are created only as and when needed.

This, in contrast, to the existing Internet where routes are immediately available and routing tables are constantly updated among routers. According to the publications<ref name="auto">[[Chai Keong Toh]] Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless Networks, Prentice Hall Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-0-13-007817-9</ref>, on-demand routing is chosen because it can reduce the amount of control packet traffic and this is suitable for a wireless network because bandwidth is limited.

Note that when the packet transits backwards from destination to the source, each intermediate node will update their routing table, signifying that it will now know how to route when it receives data from the upstream node. When the source node receives the REPLY, the route is successfully discovered and established. This process is done in real-time and only takes a few milli-seconds.

==ABR Route Discovery Phase==

==Route reconstruction phase==

ABR has 3 phases. The first phase is Route Discovery Phase. When a user initiates to transmit data, the protocol will intercept

the request and broadcast a search packet over the wireless interfaces. As the search packet propagates node to node, node identity

and stability information are appended to the packet. When the packet eventually reaches the destination node, it would have

received all the information describing the path from source to destination. When that happens, the destination then chose the best

route (because there may be more than one path from the source to the destination) and send a REPLY back to the source node, over

the chosen path.

ABR establishes routes that are long-lived or associativity-stable, thus most routes established will seldom experience link breaks; however, if one or more links are broken, their ABR will immediately invoke the RRC – route reconstruction phase. The RRC basically repairs the broken link by having the upstream node (which senses the link break) perform a localized route repair. The localized route repair is performed by carrying out a localized broadcast query that searches for an alternative long-lived partial route to the destination.

Note that when the packet transits backwards from destination to the source, each intermediate nodes will update their routing

table, signifying that it will now know how to route when it receives data from the upstream node. When the source node receives

the REPLY, the route is successfully discovered and established. This process is done in real-time and only takes a few

milli-seconds.

ABR route maintenance consists of:

==ABR Route Reconstruction Phase==

Because ABR chooses route that are long-lived or associativity-stable, most route so established will seldom experience link

breaks. However, if one or more links are broken, there ABR will immediately respond and invoke the RRC - route reconstruction

phase. The RRC basically repairs the broken link by having the upstream node (which sense the link break) doing a localized

route repair. The localized route repair is in the form of localized broadcast query, in the search for an alternative

long-lived partial route to the destination.

ABR route maintenance consists of:

*(a) partial route discovery,

Line 47 ⟶ 23:

*(d) new route discovery (worse case).

==AR Route Deletiondeletion Phasephase==

When a discovered route is no longer needed, a RD (Route Delete) packet will be initiated by the source node so that all intermediate nodes in the route will update their routing table entries and stop relay data packets associated with this deleted route.

so that all intermediate nodes in the route will update their routing table entries and stopped relay data

packets associated with this deleted route.

In addition to using RD to delete a route, ABR can also implement a soft state approach where route entries are expired or invalidated after timed out, when there is no traffic activity related to the route over a period of time.

are expired or invalidated after timed out, when there is no traffic activity related to the route over a

period of time.

==ABR Practicality==

In 1998, ABR was successfully implemented<ref>{{citecitation |title="Mobile Computing Magazine Interview Article - First practical ad hoc wireless network implementation outdoors, 1999 |url=http://init.unizar.es/images/MobiCompMag1999.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{citecitation |title="Implementation and evaluation of an adaptive routing protocol for infrastructureless mobile networks", Proceedings of 9th International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks, 2000. |urlpages=https:20–27|doi=10.1109//wwwICCCN.semanticscholar2000.org/paper/885465|chapter=Implementation- and- evaluation- of- an- adaptive- routing protocol for infrastructureless mobile networks|year=2000|last1=Toh|first1=C.-K.|last2=Lin/422dbbb6a624855a4636bed56c65e0d1278f9e6a|first2=G.|last3=Delwar|first3=M.|isbn=978-0-7803-6494-3|s2cid=26834795 }}</ref><ref>{{citecitation |title="Evaluating the communication performance of an ad hoc wireless network", IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, 2000 |url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=YTwSsH4AAAAJ&citation_for_view=YTwSsH4AAAAJ:WF5omc3nYNoC}}</ref><ref>{{citecitation |title="Experimenting with an Ad Hoc wireless network, "ACM SIGMETRICS Performance Evaluation Review, Volume 28 Issue 3, Dec. 2000 |urljournal=http:ACM SIGMETRICS Performance Evaluation Review|volume=28|issue=3|pages=21–29|doi=10.1145//dl377616.acm377622|year=2000|last1=Toh|first1=C.org/citation-K.cfm?id|last2=377622Chen|first2=Richard|last3=Delwar|first3=Minar|last4=Allen|first4=Donald|s2cid=1486812 }}</ref> into the Linux kernel, in various different branded laptops (IBM Thinkpad, COMPAQ, Toshiba, etc.) that are equipped with [[WaveLAN]] 802.11a PCMCIA wireless adapters. A working 6-node wide [[wireless ad hoc network]] spanning a distance of over 600 meters was achieved and the successful event was published in Mobile Computing Magazine in 1999. Various tests were performed with the network:

COMPAQ, Toshiba, etc) that are equipped with [[WaveLAN]] 802.11a PCMCIA wireless adapters. A working 6-node wide

[[wireless ad hoc network]] spanning a distance of over 600 meters was achieved and the successful event was published in Mobile Computing Magazine in 1999. Various tests were performed with the network:

*[1]# Transmission of up to 100MBytes500MBytes of data from source to destination over a 3-hop route.

# Link breaks and automatic link repairs proven to be working

# Automatic Route Discovery

*[2] Link breaks and automatic link repairs proven to be working

# Route Delete

# Web Server in Ad Hoc mode – with source being client and destination being the web server

*[3] Automatic Route Discovery

# Transmission of multimedia information (audio<ref>{{citation |title=Transporting Audio over Wireless Ad Hoc Networks, Proc. International Conference on Personal, Indoor And Mobile Radio Communications, Pimrc, 2003, v. 1, p. 772-777 |url=https://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/46490/1/92280.pdf?accept=1}}</ref> and video)

# [[TELNET]] over Ad Hoc

*[4] Route Delete

# [[FTP]] over Ad Hoc

# [[HTTP]] over Ad Hoc

*[5] Web Server in Ad Hoc mode - with source being client and destination being the web server

*[6] Transmission of multimedia information (audio<ref>{{cite |title="Transporting Audio over Wireless Ad Hoc Networks" |url=https://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/46490/1/92280.pdf?accept=1}}</ref> and video)

*[7] [[TELNET]] over Ad Hoc

*[8] [[FTP]] over Ad Hoc

*[9] [[HTTP]] over Ad Hoc

Also, network performance measurements on the following were made:

*[1]# End-to-end delay

# TCP throughput

# Packet loss ratio

*[2] TCP throughput

# Route discovery delay

# Route repair delay

*[3] Packet loss ratio

# Impact of packet size on throughput

# Impact of beaconing interval on throughput and remaining battery life

*[4] Route discovery delay

*[5] Route repair delay

In 2002, TRW Tactical Systems Incorporation implemented<ref>{{cite |title="Next-Generation Tactical Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless Networks" |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228887934_Next-Generation_Tactical_Ad_Hoc_Mobile_Wireless_Networks}}</ref> an enhancement of the ABR protocol

and successfully implemented on ORiNOCO WaveLAN 802.11b over an X windows system running

Linux 5.2 Operating System on DELL laptops. The implementation and field test were done

in an outdoor setting in [[Carson, California]] over a 6-node ad hoc network. The enhancement made to the protocol include:

* Network layer QoS

* Route precedence

* Route pre-emption

TRW investigators successfully transmitted 10Gbytes of large files, and did tests on

route discovery, route repair, and measurements on delays. They recommended the use

of Multi-Input Multi-Output (MIMO) spectrum-aware MAC and the consideration of logical

clustering to scale to 100,000 or more large scale ad hoc networks.

==ABR Patent & Applications==

ABR was granted a US patent 5987011<ref>{{cite |title="A Routing Method for Ad Hoc Mobile Networks" |url=https://www.google.com/patents/US5987011}}</ref> and the assignee being [[King's College Cambridge]], UK. ABR was subsequently licensed to a US defense corporation.

Tactical Mobile Ad Hoc Networks bloom with US defense spending over $2 Billion in programs and research by DARA,

DoD, Air Force, Coast Guards, and US Navy<ref>{{cite |title="Naval Communications" |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/11605/chapter/8#153}}</ref>.

In October 2013, the '''Storm Disaster Sandy''' hit the USA, and US Coast Guards used mobile ad hoc

networking technology to quickly established networks to facilitate rescue operations. Many lives were saved.<ref>{{cite |title="After Sandy hit, Coast Guard comms got ... better" |url=https://gcn.com/articles/2013/10/07/gcn-award-coast-guard-trident.aspx}}</ref>

In '''US Operation Enduring Freedom''' on wars with Afghanistan, tactical ad hoc mobile

communications is used in the battlefield. <ref>{{cite |title="Army networking radios improve communications at tactical edge" |url=https://www.army.mil/article/68498/Army_networking_radios_improve_communications_at_tactical_edge}}</ref>

An enhanced version of the protocol was implemented in the field<ref>{{cite journal |title=Next-Generation Tactical Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless Networks |journal=TRW Technology Review Journal |date=2004 |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1LJotUZzeYZxHUg1F8YMm2zS5OdNKgguQ/view}}</ref> by defense contractor [[TRW Inc.]] in 2002. The enhancement made to the protocol include: (a) network-layer QoS additions and (b) route precedence capabilities.

'''Globally''', defense and national science organizations in other countries have also invested heavily on research programs related to mobile ad hoc networks. Such countries include USA, UK<ref>{{cite |title="UK MoD High Capacity Tactical Ad Hoc Radio" |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/514562/HOCS_F0I_2016_11086____Information_on_use_at_High_Capacity_Data_Radio__HCDR_.pdf}}</ref>, Canada, Sweden, Singapore, Australia<ref>{{cite |title="Australia DSTO Military ad-hoc wireless network" |url=http://www.acorn.net.au/show/project/57/}}</ref>, Germany, Norway<ref>{{cite |title="Research Council of Norway, VERDIKT Program" |url=http://wiki.unik.no/media/Swacom/SwacomProjectProposal.pdf}}</ref>, France, Switzerland, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, China, Spain, Italy, Denmark, Finland, etc.

==Patent and work extensions==

Many industries have

since contributed to the development of tactical ad hoc mobile radios and networking

products, including:

ABR was granted a US patent 5987011<ref>{{citation |title=A Routing Method for Ad Hoc Mobile Networks, US Patent 5987011, granted 1996, filed 1994. |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US5987011}}</ref> and the assignee being [[King's College, Cambridge]], UK.

* Harris

* BBN

* Raytheon

* Cisco

* Thales

* MeshDynamics

* Persistent Systems

* Rockwell Collins

* ITT Defense

* XES Inc.,

* Lockheed Martin

* Northrop Grumman

A few other mobile ad hoc routing protocols have incorporated ABR's stability concept or have done extensions of the ABR protocol, including:

==ABR Descendants==

* Signal Stability-based Adaptive Routing Protocol ('''SSA''')<ref>{{citation |title=Signal stability based adaptive routing (SSA) for ad-hoc mobile networks|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=241244|year = 1996|last1 = Dube|first1 = Rohit|last2 = Rais|first2 = Cynthia D.|last3 = Wang|first3 = Kuang-Yeh|last4 = Tripathi|first4 = Satish K.}}</ref>

Quite a few other mobile ad hoc routing protocols have incorporated ABR's stability concept or have done extensions and enhancement of ABR, such as Signal

* Enhanced Associativity Based Routing Protocol ('''EABR'''){{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

Stability-based Adaptive Routing Protocol ('''SSA''')<ref>{{cite |title="Signal stability based adaptive routing (SSA) for ad-hoc mobile networks"|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=241244}}</ref>, Enhanced Associativity Based Routing Protocol ('''EABR''')<ref>{{cite |title="Enhanced Associativity Based Routing Protocol"|url=http://thescipub.com/PDF/jcssp.2006.853.858.pdf}}</ref> , Alternative Enhancement of Associativity-Based Routing ('''AEABR''')<ref>{{cite |title="Alternative Enhancement of Associativity-Based Routing"|url=http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-642-11817-3_7#page-1

* Alternative Enhancement of Associativity-Based Routing ('''AEABR''')<ref>{{citation |title=Alternative Enhancement of Associativity-Based Routing|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-11817-3_7

}}</ref>, Optimized Associativity Threshold Routing ('''OABTR''')<ref>{{cite |title="Optimized Associativity Threshold Routing"|url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.79.8653&rep=rep1&type=pdf}}</ref> , Cluster Based Enhanced Associativity-Based Routing ('''CBE-ABR'''),<REF>{{cite |title="CBE-ABR: A Cluster Based Enhanced Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc Mobile Networks" |url=http://airccse.org/journal/cnc/1009s5.pdf}}</ref> Associativity-Based Clustering Protocol ('''ABCP'''), <ref>{{cite |title="Associativity-Based Clustering Protocol for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks" |url=https://jan.newmarch.name/conferences/ccnc05/DATA/1-N03-04.PDF}}</ref> Fuzzy Based Trust Associativity-Based Routing ('''Fuzzy-ABR'''), Associativity Tick Averaged Associativity-Based Routing ('''ATA-AR'''), <ref>{{cite |title="Associativity Tick Averaged Associativity-Based Routing for Realtime Mobile Networks" |url=http://www.emo.org.tr/ekler/8a07694d909694a_ek.pdf}}</ref>, Self-adaptive Q-learning based trust ABR ('''QTABR''')<ref>{{cite |title="Self-Adaptive Trust Based ABR Protocol for MANETs Using Q-Learning" |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4164804/}}</ref>, Quality of Service Extensions to ABR ('''QoSE-ABR''')<ref>{{cite |title="Adding Quality of Service Extensions to the Associativity Based Routing Protocol for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks"|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1487990}}</ref>, TABU Search Initiated Associativity-Based Routing ('''TIG-ABR''') <ref>{{cite |title="Improved Associativity Based Routing for Multi Hop Networks Using TABU Initialized Genetic Algorithm" |url=http://www.ripublication.com/ijaer16/ijaerv11n7_28.pdf}}</ref>, Associativity-based Multicast Routing ('''ABAM''')<ref>{{cite |title="ABAM: On-Demand Associativity-Based Multicast" |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3874369_ABAM_On-Demand_Associativity-Based_Multicast_Routing_for_Ad_Hoc_Mobile_Networks}}</ref>, Multipath Associativity Based Routing ('''MABR''')<ref>{{cite |title="Multipath Associativity Based Routing"|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1044034}}</ref>, and so on. The stability concept is also applied to [[wireless sensors network]]<ref>{{cite |title="Associative routing for wireless sensor networks" |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140366411000326}}</ref> and VANETs - [[Vehicular Ad Hoc Network]].<ref>{{cite |title="A Stable Routing Protocol for Vehicles in Urban Environments" |url=http://dsn.sagepub.com/content/9/11/759261.full}}</ref>

|year=2009

|s2cid=8920485

}}</ref>

* Optimized Associativity Threshold Routing ('''OABTR''')<ref>{{citation |title=Optimized Associativity Threshold Routing|citeseerx=10.1.1.79.8653}}</ref>

* Associativity-Based Clustering Protocol ('''ABCP'''),<ref>{{citation |title=Associativity-Based Clustering Protocol for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks |url=https://jan.newmarch.name/conferences/ccnc05/DATA/1-N03-04.PDF}}</ref>

* Fuzzy Based Trust Associativity-Based Routing ('''Fuzzy-ABR''')

* Associativity Tick Averaged Associativity-Based Routing ('''ATA-AR'''),<ref>{{citation |title=Associativity Tick Averaged Associativity-Based Routing for Realtime Mobile Networks |url=http://www.emo.org.tr/ekler/8a07694d909694a_ek.pdf}}</ref>

* Self-adaptive Q-learning based trust ABR ('''QTABR''')<ref>{{citation |title=Self-Adaptive Trust Based ABR Protocol for MANETs Using Q-Learning |journal= The Scientific World Journal|volume=2014 |pages=452362 |pmc=4164804 |year=2014 |last1=Vijaya Kumar |first1=A. |last2=Jeyapal |first2=A. |pmid=25254243 |doi=10.1155/2014/452362 |doi-access= free}}</ref>

* Quality of Service Extensions to ABR ('''QoSE-ABR''')<ref>{{citation |pages = 631–637|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1487990|doi = 10.1109/APSCC.2008.234|isbn = 9780769534732|year = 2008|series = Apscc '08| s2cid=7026878 | chapter=Adding Quality of Service Extensions to the Associativity Based Routing Protocol for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET) | title=2008 IEEE Asia-Pacific Services Computing Conference | last1=Murad | first1=Ayman Mansour | last2=Al-Mahadeen | first2=Bassam | last3=Murad | first3=Nuha Mansour | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

* Associativity-based Multicast Routing ('''ABAM''')<ref>{{citation |title=ABAM: On-Demand Associativity-Based Multicast |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3874369}}</ref>

* Multipath Associativity Based Routing ('''MABR''')<ref>{{citation |chapter=Multipath Associativity Based Routing|chapter-url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1044034|doi = 10.1109/WONS.2005.24|title = Second Annual Conference on Wireless On-demand Network Systems and Services|pages = 60–69|year = 2005|last1 = Carthy|first1 = P.M.|last2 = Grigoras|first2 = D.|isbn = 0769522904 <!--0-7695-2290-0 is listed on some pages, but it is invalid-->| s2cid=12523282 }}</ref>

* Associativity routing for Wireless Sensor Networks <ref>{{citation |title=Associative routing for wireless sensor networks |journal=Computer Communications|volume=34|issue=18|pages=2162–2173|doi=10.1016/j.comcom.2011.01.010|year=2011|last1=Eltarras|first1=Ramy|last2=Eltoweissy|first2=Mohamed}}</ref>

* Associative Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) <ref>{{citation |title=A Stable Routing Protocol for Vehicles in Urban Environments |journal=International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks|volume=9|issue=11|pages=759261|doi=10.1155/2013/759261|year=2013|last1=Yu|first1=Hyun|last2=Ahn|first2=Sanghyun|last3=Yoo|first3=Joon|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==References==

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[[Category:Mobile computers]]

[[Category:Wireless mesh network]]

[[Category:Wireless sensor network]]

[[Category:Wireless networking]]

[[Category:Mobile ad hoc network]]

[[Category:Ad hoc routing protocols]]

[[Category:Routing protocols]]