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[[File:Army.mil-2007-02-07-153623US military drum compression test.jpg|thumb|150 px|Compression test for steel drum]]▼
The '''container compression test''' measures the [[compressive strength]] of packages such as boxes, drums, and cans. It usually provides a plot of [[Deformation (engineering)|deformation]] vs compressive [[force]].
 
It is commonly used to evaluate [[shipping container]]s made of [[corrugated fiberboard]] as well as [[wooden box]]es and [[crate]]s. Industrial and consumer packages other than boxes can also be subjected to compression testing: drum, pail, bottle, tub<ref>
{{cite journal
| last =Varzinskas | first =Visvadas
| author2=Jurgis Kazimieras Staniškis
| first =Visvadas▼
|author2=Jurgis Kazimieras Staniškis |author3=Alis Lebedys
| |author4=Edmundas Kibirkštis
| |author5=Valdas Miliūnas
| year =2009▼
| title = Life Cycle Assessment of Common Plastic Packaging for Reducing Environmental Impact and Material Consumption
| journal = Environmental Research, Engineering and Management
| volume =50 | issue =4 | pages =57–65
| issue =4▼
| pages =57–65▼
▲| year =2009
| url = http://www.matsc.ktu.lt/index.php/erem/article/viewArticle/42
| accessdate = 21 September 2012}}</ref> etc. Package components are also evaluated for compression resistance.<ref>{{Citation▼
| jfm =▼
| last1 =Urbanik |first1 =T. J.
▲ | accessdate = 21 September 2012}}</ref> etc. Package components are also evaluated for compression resistance.<ref>{{Citation
| lastlast2 =Lee Urbanek |first2=S. K
| firstlast3 =Johnson T|first3=C. G.
| author-link =
| last2 =Lee, Johnson
| first2 = ▼
| title = Column Compression Strength of Tubular Packaging Forms Made of Paper
| publisher journal= Journal of Testing and Evaluation▼
| place =
▲ | first2volume = 34
▲ | publisher = Journal of Testing and Evaluation
| seriesissue = 6
| volumepages = 34,631–40
| pages =31–40▼
| language =
| url = http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf2006/fpl_2006_urbanik001.pdf
}}</ref>
| archiveurl =
| accessdate =12 December 2011}}</ref>
 
It is usually a laboratory test involving a special machine, a compression tester, to apply controlled compression on a test [[Laboratory specimen|specimen]]. A [[universal testing machine]] is sometimes configured to perform a package compression test. Compression testing can also involve a superimposed ''dead load'' to a test package.
 
==Test Proceduresprocedures==▼
[[File:Packaging Compression tester.jpeg|thumb|Compression test for corrugated box]]
A common method of conducting the test, as described in several published standard [[test method]]s, is to compress a box at a constant rate of {{convert|1/2&nbsp;inch (12.5&nbsp;|in/min|mm) per minute/min}} between two rigid platens. The platens can be fixed so that they remain parallel or one can be pivoted or "floating". The test can be conducted on empty or filled boxes, with or without a box closure. Conditioning to standard temperature and humidity is important. ▼
▲[[File:Army.mil-2007-02-07-153623.jpg|thumb|150 px|Compression test for steel drum]]
 
▲==Test Procedures==
▲A common method of conducting the test, as described in several published standard [[test method]]s, is to compress a box at a constant rate of 1/2&nbsp;inch (12.5&nbsp;mm) per minute between two rigid platens. The platens can be fixed so that they remain parallel or one can be pivoted or "floating". The test can be conducted on empty or filled boxes, with or without a box closure. Conditioning to standard temperature and humidity is important.
 
The results of the constant rate of compression test can be:
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* The ability of a container to protect the contents from compression damage
* etc.
The dynamic loads have some relationship with expected field loads.:<ref>{{cite journal |last=Burgess |first=G|authorlink= |author2=Singh, Srinagyam |date=July 2005 |title=Predicting Collapse Times for Corrugated Boxes Under Top Load|journal=AstmJournal of Testing and Evaluation Jte|volume=33 |issue=4 |pages= |id=|url= |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref> often factors of 4 or 5 are used to estimate the allowable working load on boxes.
 
A test can also be conducted with platens that are not mechanically driven but are free to move with a fixed mass (or fixed force) loaded upon them.<ref>ASTM D4577, Standard Test Method for Compression Resistance of a container Under Constant Load</ref> The results of static load testing can be:
* The time to failure
* The time to a critical deformation
Line 54 ⟶ 47:
As with any laboratory testing field [[Verification and Validation|validation]] is necessary to determine suitability.
 
==Corrugated Boxbox Testingtesting==
Corrugated shipping containers are exposed to compression hazards during storage and shipment. Proper compression strength is a key performance factor.
 
===Factors potentially affecting test results===
* Size and construction of the specific shipping container under test<ref>{{Citation
| last =de la Fuente*
▲ | first =VisvadasJavier
| title = Investigation of Compression Strength of Bliss Style Corrugated Fiberboard Boxes
| journal = Journal of Applied Packaging Research
| volume =10
▲ | issue =4
▲ | pages =57–65 45-64
| year =2011
| url = https://repository.rit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1140&&context=japr&&sei-redir=1&referer=https%253A%252F%252Fscholar.google.com%252Fscholar%253Fstart%253D20%2526q%253Dcorrugated%252Bbox%252Bprototyping%252Bsoftware%2526hl%253Den%2526as_sdt%253D0%252C24#search=%22corrugated%20box%20prototyping%20software%22
| access-date = 12 October 2024}}</ref>
* Grade and flute structure of [[corrugated fiberboard]]
* [[moistureMoisture content]] of the corrugated board (based on [[relative humidity]])<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miltz |first=J|authorlink= |author2=Rosen-Doody |date=February 1981 |title=Effect of atmospheric environment on the performance of corrugated|journal=Packaging Technology|volume= |issue= |pages=19–23 |id=|url= |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref>
* Orientation of the box during the test
* Inner supports, if used during testing (wood, corrugated board, cushioning)
* Contents (when box is tested with contents)
* Box closure<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Sheehan | first = R
| firstdate = RAugust 1988
| title = Box and Closure: Partners in Performance
| journal = J.Journal of Packaging Technology
| volume = 2 | issue = 4
}}</ref>
| issue = 4▼
| pages = ▼
| publisher = Technical Publications Inc
| date = August 1988
| accessdate = }}</ref>
* Whether the compression machine has "fixed" or "floating" (swiveled) platens.
* Previous handling or testing of box<ref>{{cite journal |last=Singh |first=S. P.|authorlink= |author2=Pratheepthinthong |date=July 2000 |title=Loss of Compression Strength in Corrugated Shipping Containers Shipped in the Single Parcel Environment|journal=J.Journal of Testing and Evaluation|volume=28 |issue=4 |pages= |id=|url= |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref>
*Vent and [[package handle|hand holes]]<ref>{{Citation
| last =Fadiji
▲ | jfmfirst =T
| title =The Role of Horticultural Package Vent Hole Design on Structural Performance
| journal =Azojete
| volume =14
▲ | pages =31–40194–201
| date =2018
| url =https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/58363337/AZOJETE-CIGR_19_194-201.pdf?1549687286=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DTHE_ROLE_OF_HORTICULTURAL_PACKAGE_VENT_H.pdf&Expires=1600537321&Signature=aikwpcP68LIvJexSUqyf9mWiLUgLdMWQxSEB4MPixHGmQ5sXUdLWEXVfmfKgZl62LxdAbjCnfVoXtsv5elZYS-sVEPye7hIYaAP2ttOw6-qW94zNegP1qXmsjI0Hb3iirvcz7O2dsHAscnDHusoV5-Xzy-XCM17xOjLf7c5qx2dwQauDYrEZm4CoQuFoxvmTRfT55tf0CrIIRcC~w8EmX9zY9B4OgFT1CDIlj9RSdSXsclVUqLkfCxhBT0b37oN0qypBzbQzPVN7xHVzg3LoIEl0-Lc8ukr-0sEmL-vis-zDbPW2Pv3OTKDSqIUnGBv375Xxl9LdAw1icwwa7rFpHQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA
| access-date =16 September 2020}}{{dead link|date=May 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
| last =Singh
| first =J
| title = The Effect of Ventilation and Hand Holes on Loss of Compression Strength in Corrugated Boxes
| journal = J Applied Packaging Research
| volume =2
▲ | issue = 4
▲ | pages = 227–238
| year =2008
| url =http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp=&context=it_fac&amp=&sei-redir=1&referer=https%253A%252F%252Fscholar.google.com%252Fscholar%253Fhl%253Den%2526as_sdt%253D0%252C24%2526qsp%253D3%2526q%253Dcorrugated%252Bboxes%252Bhand%252Bholes#search=%22corrugated%20boxes%20hand%20holes%22
| access-date = 2 April 2018}}</ref>
* etc.
 
===Estimations===
Corrugated fiberboard can be evaluated by many material test methods including an [[Edge crush test|Edge Crush Test]] (ECT). There have been efforts to estimate the peak compression strength of a box (usually empty, regular singelwall slotted containers, top-to-bottom) based on various board properties. Some have involved [[finite element analysis]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Urbanik|first=T J|authorlink= |date=July 1981 |title=Effect of paperboard stress strain characteristics on strength of singlewall corrugated boxes|journal=US Forest Products Laboratory Report|volume=401 |issue= |series=FPL|pages= |id=|url= |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref> One of the commonly referenced [[empirical]] estimations was published by [[Edge crush test|McKee]] in 1963.<ref>{{cite journal |last=McKee|first=R C|authorlink= |author2=Gander, Wachuta |date=August 1963 |title=Compression strength formula for corrugated boxes|journal=Paperboard Packaging |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages= |id=|url= |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref> This used the board ECT, the MD and CD flexural stiffness, the box perimeter, and the box depth. Simplifications have used a formula involving the board ECT, the board thickness, and the box perimeter. Most estimations do not relate well to other box orientations, box styles, or to filled boxes. [[Physical test]]ing of filled and closed boxes remains necessary.
 
===Calculating compression requirement===
==Dynamic Compression==▼
Fiber Box Association have a method for calculating the required compression losses which includes the following factors:
Containers can be subjected to compression forces that involve distribution dynamics. For example, a package may be impacted by an object being dropped onto it (vertical load)[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y0AZBOiah2A] or impacted by freight sliding into it (horizontal load). Vehicle vibration can involve a stack of containers and create dynamic compression responses.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Godshall|first=D |year=1971 |title=Frequency response, damping, and transmissability of top loaded corrugated containers|journal=US Forest Products Laboratory Report|volume=160 |issue= |series=FPL|pages= |id=|url=http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplrp/fplrp160.pdf|accessdate=28 June 2011 |quote= }}</ref> [[Package testing]] methods are available to evaluate these compression dynamics.▼
* Time
* Moisture
* Palletizing type
* Pallet patterns
* Pallet type
* Handling
 
▲==Dynamic Compressioncompression==
▲Containers can be subjected to compression forces that involve distribution dynamics. For example, a package may be impacted by an object being dropped onto it (vertical load)[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y0AZBOiah2A] or impacted by freight sliding into it (horizontal load). Vehicle vibration can involve a stack of containers and create dynamic compression responses.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Godshall|first=D |year=1971 |title=Frequency response, damping, and transmissabilitytransmissibility of top loaded corrugated containers|journal=US Forest Products Laboratory Report|volume=160 |issue= |series=FPL|pages= |id=|url=http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplrp/fplrp160.pdf|accessdateaccess-date=28 June 2011 |quote= }}</ref> [[Package testing]] methods are available to evaluate these compression dynamics.
 
==See also==
*[[Corrugated box design]]▼
*[[Corrugated fiberboard]]▼
*[[Package testing]]▼
*[[Plane strain compression test]]
 
==References==
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*[[ASTM]] Standard D642 Test Method for Determining Compressive Resistance of Shipping Containers, Components, and Unit Loads.
*[[ASTM]] Standard D4577 Test Method for Compression Resistance of a Container Under Constant Load
*[[ASTM]] Standard D7030 Test Method for Short Term Creep Performance of CorrrugatedCorrugated Fiberboard Containers Under Constant Load Using a Compression Test Machine
*German Standard [[Deutsches Institut für Normung|DIN]] 55440-1 Packaging Test; compression test; test with a constant conveyance-speed
*[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 12048 Packaging—Complete, filled transport packages—Compression and stacking tests using a compression tester
 
==Further reading==
 
*Brody, A. L., and Marsh, K, S., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 1997, ISBN 0-471-06397-5▼
*Soroka, W, "Fundamentals of Packaging Technology", IoPP, 2002, {{ISBN |1-930268-25-4}}
*Urbanik, T. J, and Frank, B, "Box Compression Analysis of World Wide Data", Wood and Fiber Science, 2006, [http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf2006/fpl_2006_urbanik002.pdf]
▲*Brody Yam, AK. L., and Marsh, K, S., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 19972009, {{ISBN |978-0-471470-0639708704-56}}
 
==SeeExternal alsolinks==
* Package Compression Testing [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dYGZYvspfpg]
▲*[[Corrugated box design]]
▲*[[Corrugated fiberboard]]
▲*[[Package testing]]
 
{{packaging}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Box Compression Test}}
[[Category:Paper products]]
[[Category:Packaging materials]]
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