Plains Apache language: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|North American aboriginal language}}

{{distinguish|Kiowa language}}

{{Infobox language

| name = Plains Apache

| altname = Kiowa Apache

| states = [[United States]]

| region = [[Caddo County]], [[Oklahoma]]

| ethnicity = [[Plains Apache]]

|extinct=2008

| extinct = 2008, with the death of Alfred Chalepah Jr.

|familycolor=Dené-Yeniseian

| familycolor = Dené-Yeniseian

|fam2=[[Na-Dene languages|Na-Dene]]

|fam3 fam2 = [[AthabaskanNa-Dene languages|AthabaskanNa-Dene]]

|fam4 fam3 = [[Southern Athabaskan languages|Southern Athabaskan]]

| fam4 = [[Southern Athabaskan languages|Southern Athabaskan]]

|iso3=apk

| map = Southern_Athabaskan_languages.svg

|glotto=kiow1264

| mapcaption = Historical distribution of Southern Athabaskan languages. Plains Apache (labeled Kiowa Apache) is located in northwestern Oklahoma.

|glottorefname=Kiowa Apache

| iso3 = apk

| glotto = kiow1264

| glottorefname = Kiowa Apache

| notice = IPA

}}

The '''Plains Apache''' language (or '''Kiowa Apache''' language) is a [[Southern Athabaskan languages|Southern Athabaskan language]] formerly spoken by the [[Plains Apache]], organized as the [[Apache Tribe of Oklahoma]], living primarily around [[Anadarko, Oklahoma|Anadarko]] in southwest [[Oklahoma]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Everett |first1=Dianna |title=Apache Tribe of Oklahoma |url=https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=AP002 |website=The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture |publisher=Oklahoma Historical Society |accessdateaccess-date=20 January 2020}}</ref> The language is [[extinct language|extinct]] as of 2008, when Alfred Chalepah, Jr., the last native speaker, died.<ref>Morgan, J. L. (2012). ''Classificatory Verbs in Plains Apache'' (Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma).</ref>

Plains Apache is the most closelydivergent relatedmember toof otherthe Southern Athabaskan languages, a family which also likeincludes [[Navajo language|Navajo]], [[Chiricahua language|Chiricahua Apache]], [[Mescalero language|Mescalero Apache]], [[Lipan Apache language|Lipan Apache]], [[Western Apache language|Western Apache]], and [[Jicarilla Apache language|Jicarilla Apache]]. As Plainsa Apachemember isof the mostbroader divergentAthabaskan memberfamily, ofit thehas subfamily.an Theextremely languagecomplex issystem [[extinctof language|extinct]]; Alfredverbal Chalepahmorphology, Jr.,often theenabling lastentire nativesentences speaker,to be constructed with diedonly ina 2008verb.

==Phonology==

This article follows the orthography of Bittle (1963); where this differs from the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], IPA is given between slashes.

===Consonants===

Plains Apache has a large consonant inventory resembling that of its close relatives Navajo and Western Apache.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |

! rowspan="2" | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]

! colspan="3" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]

! rowspan="2" |[[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br/>alveolar]]

! rowspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]

! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]

|-style="font-size: x-small;"

! plain

! [[lateral consonant|lateral]]

! [[affricate consonant|fricated]]

|-

! rowspan="4" | [[Plosive]]

! <small>[[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]</small>

| {{IPAlink|p}} {{angbr|b}}

| {{IPAlink|t}} {{angbr|d}}

| {{IPAlink|tɬ}} {{angbr|dl}}

| {{IPAlink|ts}} {{angbr|dz}}

| {{IPAlink|tʃ}} {{angbr|dž}}

| {{IPAlink|k}} {{angbr|g}}

| rowspan="3" | {{IPAlink|ʔ}}

|-

! <small>[[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>

|

|

| {{IPAlink|tɬʰ}} {{angbr|tł}}

| {{IPAlink|tsʰ}} {{angbr|ts}}

| {{IPAlink|tʃʰ}} {{angbr|tš}}

| {{IPAlink|kʰ}} {{angbr|k}}

|-

! <small>[[Glottalized consonant|glottalized]]</small>

|

| {{IPAlink|tʼ}}

| {{IPAlink|tɬʼ}} {{angbr|tłʼ}}

| {{IPAlink|tsʼ}}

| {{IPAlink|tʃʼ}} {{angbr|tšʼ}}

| {{IPAlink|kʼ}}

|-

!<small>[[Prenasalized consonant|prenasalised]]</small>

|

|{{IPAlink|ⁿd}}

|

|

|

|

|

|-

! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative]]

! <small>[[voiceless]]</small>

|

|

| {{IPAlink|ɬ}} {{angbr|ł}}

| {{IPAlink|s}}

| {{IPAlink|ʃ}} {{angbr|š}}

| {{IPAlink|x}}

| {{IPAlink|h}}

|-

! <small>[[voiced]]</small>

|

|

|

| {{IPAlink|z}}

| {{IPAlink|ʒ}} {{angbr|ž}}

| {{IPAlink|ɣ}}

|

|-

! colspan="2" |[[Sonorant]]

| {{IPAlink|m}}

| {{IPAlink|n}}

| {{IPAlink|l}}

|

| {{IPAlink|j}} {{angbr|y}}

|

|

|}

The phoneme {{IPA|/ⁿd/}} is only found in prefixes and does not occur before {{IPA|/o/}}. {{IPA|/h/}} is in free variation with {{IPA|/x/}} preceding {{IPA|/a/}} and also does not occur before {{IPA|/o/}}. The fricated alveolar and postalveolar series are tend to be realized as slightly retroflex preceding {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}}, though these variants are in free variation with the unretroflexed realizations. The plain alveolar and velar series are slightly fronted preceding {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}}, and slightly backed and rounded preceding {{IPA|/o/}}.

===Vowels===

Plains Apache distinguishes four vowel qualities, much like the other Southern Athabaskan languages.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"

!

! [[Front vowel|Front]]

! [[Back vowel|Back]]

|-

! [[Close vowel|High]]

| {{IPAlink|i}}

| rowspan="2" | {{IPAlink|o}}

|-

! [[Open-mid vowel|Mid]]

| {{IPAlink|ɛ}} {{angbr|e}}

|-

! [[Open vowel|Low]]

| colspan="2" | {{IPAlink|a}}

|}

Additionally, all vowels may be either short or long and nasal or oral. Length is indicated in the orthography by writing the vowel twice (e.g. {{lang|apk|kóó}}, 'water'); nasalization is indicated with an [[ogonek]] (e.g. {{lang|apk|nǫ̀ǫ̀}}, 'earth'). When long, the realization of {{IPA|/i/}} tends to be closer to {{IPA|[i]}}, and when short, closer to {{IPA|[ɪ]}}. An analogous alternation is true of {{IPA|/o/}} {{IPA|[u~o]}}, although this variation is more free, and is lexicalized by some speakers in certain words.

===Syllable Structure===

The Plains Apache syllable is maximally CCV:C, e.g. {{lang|apk|stłèèh}} 'pants', though initial clusters are rare and must co-occur with a long vowel, making most syllables (C)V(:)(C), e.g. {{lang|apk|xòòš}} 'cactus' and {{lang|apk|séé}} 'dust'. All consonants may appear in the syllable onset, although {{IPA|/l/}} and a null onset are not permitted word-initially; only {{IPA|/d, g, ʔ, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h, l/}} and {{IPA|/ɬ/}} may appear in the syllable coda, whether word-final or not.

=== Tone ===

Plains Apache has a [[register tone]] system with two levels, low and high. Low is written with a grave accent (e.g. {{lang|apk|bìs}}, 'bank'), and high is written with an acute accent (e.g. {{lang|apk|šéł}}, 'kindness'). Syllables with short vowels bear a single toneme, but those with long vowels have one toneme for each [[mora (linguistics)|mora]] of the vowel, making for a total of four contours:

* high-high, {{lang|apk|tʼǫ́ǫ́š}}, 'bark'

* high-low, {{lang|apk|béè-lą̀ą̀ʔ}}, 'point'

* low-high, {{lang|apk|gòóʔ}}, 'snake'

* low-low, {{lang|apk|gààd}}, 'spread of cedars'

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

Almost every noun in Plains Apache can optionally take a pronominal prefix to indicate its possessor. These prefixes are as follows (some of the prefixes have multiple forms in free variation; in these cases, the more common variant is listed first).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

! colspan="2" |

! Singular

! Plural

|-

! colspan="2" | 1st person

| ší-

| rowspan="2" | dàxí- ~ dá-

|-

! colspan="2" | 2nd person

| dí-

|-

! rowspan="2" | 3rd person

!

| colspan="2" | bí- ~ mí-

|-

! [[indefinite pronoun|indefinite]]

| colspan="2" | ʔí-

|-

! colspan="2" | [[Fourth person|4th person]]

| colspan="2" | góó- ~ gó-

|}

Some of these forms require further explanation. The indefinite third person may be used when the possessor is unknown, and is similar in meaning to 'someone's' (e.g. {{lang|apk|ʔí-bą̀ą̀s}}, 'a hoop owned by some unknown person'). The fourth person is reserved for possessors who are deemed to be in some way remote from the speaker, usually socially; compare {{lang|apk|bí-bą̀ą̀s}}, which would refer to a hoop belonging to someone who the speaker is familiar with and interacts with frequently and informally, and {{lang|apk|góó-bą̀ą̀s}}, used for someone who the speaker has a purely formal relationship with and does not know well.

The noun bases to which these prefixes can be added are of one of three classes: primary, compound, and nominalized. Primary noun bases are mostly monosyllabic stems such as {{lang|apk|t'èèš}}, 'charcoal', though a few of them seem to consist of an unidentified prefix and a stem (e.g. {{lang|apk|dèè-éh}}, 'antelope'), and some others are simply unanalyzable polysyllables, perhaps originally onomatopoeic (e.g. {{lang|apk|ʔą̀ą̀ʔą̀ʔ}}, 'magpie'). Many of the stem nouns have different forms depending on their morphological context, with an absolute form when unpossessed, an inflected form when possessed, and a combining form in compounds or nominalized phrases. The formation of these is generally irregular, although certain patterns do exist, such as initial {{lang|apk|x}}, {{lang|apk|s}}, and {{lang|apk|ł}} becoming {{lang|apk|ɣ}}, {{lang|apk|z}}, and {{lang|apk|l}} when inflected (e.g. {{lang|apk|sàà}} > {{lang|apk|bí-zàà}}, 'his language') and a final V:h becoming Vʔ (e.g. {{lang|apk|t'ààh}} > {{lang|apk|bí-t'áʔ}}, 'his feather').

Some stem nouns, especially those referring to body parts, are [[inalienably possessed noun|inalienably possessed]], i.e. they cannot occur without a possessor prefix (e.g. {{lang|apk|bí-dààh}}, 'his lips', but not {{lang|apk|*dààh}}). In these cases the indefinite prefix must be used if one wishes to talk about the object without specifying the possessor ({{lang|apk|ʔí-dààh}}, 'lips'). In order to indicate [[alienable possession]] of these nouns, an additional possessor prefix can be attached before the indefinite prefix, yielding forms like {{lang|apk|bí-ʔí-k'àʔ}}, 'his fat (which comes from the body of something or someone else, but is now in his possession)' contrasting with {{lang|apk|bí-k'àʔ}}, 'his fat (which is a part of his own body)'. Some of these nouns may change their meaning when preceded by {{lang|apk|ʔí-}}, such as {{lang|apk|ʔí-bèʔ}}, 'milk' versus {{lang|apk|bí-bèʔ}}, 'her breast'. Lastly, some can only take the indefinite prefix, effectively turning them into regular alienably possessed nouns starting with {{lang|apk|ʔí-}} (e.g. {{lang|apk|ʔí-dààh}}, 'enemy', but {{lang|apk|bí-ʔí-dààh}}, 'his enemy', not *{{lang|apk|bí-dààh}}).

The second kind of noun bases are compounds, which are formed from two noun stems and sometimes an enclitic of obscure meaning (e.g. {{lang|apk|bí-déé-kòò}}, 'his tears', from {{lang|apk|déé}}, combining form of 'eye', and {{lang|apk|kòò}}, combining form of 'water'). The third kind of noun bases are nominalized verbs or phrases, which may or may not include some kind of a relative enclitic. Examples include {{lang|apk|dáł-ts'ààh}}, 'zebra, tiger', from the identical verb meaning 'marks are on it', and {{lang|apk|hà-ts'í-ɣą̀ą̀s-é}}, 'badger', from the verb {{lang|apk|hà-ts'í-ɣą̀ą̀s}}, 'he scratches out' plus the relative enclitic {{lang|apk|-é}} 'he who'.

=== Verbs ===

Like those of most other Athabaskan languages, Plains Apache verbs are highly morphologically complex, exhibiting [[polypersonal agreement]], rich [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] marking, and the characteristic Athabaskan classifier system (a set of four mandatory [[valency (linguistics)|valence]]-changing prefixes found throughout the family). Bittle (1963) identifies 14 positions in the verb template, divided into the verbal base (which defines the lexical meaning of the verb) and [[inflectional paradigm|paradigmatic]] prefixes (which inflect the verb for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, and voice). The following verb template table is reproduced from Bittle:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

! rowspan="2" |Position

! colspan="2" |Verbal base

! rowspan="2" |Paradigmatic prefixes

|-

!Theme

!Adverbial prefixes

|-

!1

|

|

|Indirect object

|-

!2

|

|Postposition

|

|-

!3

|

|Adverbial prefixes

|

|-

!4

|Theme prefix

|

|

|-

!5

|

|

|Iterative mode

|-

!6

|

|

|Number prefix

|-

!7

|

|

|Direct object

|-

!8

|

|

|Deictic prefixes

|-

!9

|

|Adverbial prefixes

|

|-

!10

|

|

|Tense prefix

|-

!11

|

|

|Modal prefixes

|-

!12

|

|

|Subject pronoun

|-

!13

|

|

|Classifier

|-

!14

|Stem

|

|

|}

<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">

3SBJ:3rd person (singular), subject

3OBJ:3rd person (singular), object

</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

However, a verb in Plains Apache never has an affix in each position. A typical verb might be inflected as follows:

{{interlinear |indent=2 |lang=apk

|top=Šàyédíʔą̀ą̀

|ši- a- yi- dí- ∅- ∅- ʔą̀ą̀

|1SG.OBJ- PP- 3OBJ- PFV- 3SBJ- CLF- give

|'He gives it to me'

}}

In this case, {{lang|apk|ši-}} is the indirect object prefix in slot 1, {{lang|apk|-a-}} is the postposition in slot 2, {{lang|apk|-yi-}} is the direct object prefix in slot 7, {{lang|apk|-dí-}} is the modal prefix in slot 11, slots 12 and 13 are occupied by zero morphemes, and {{lang|apk|ʔą̀ą̀}} is the stem in slot 14. All other slots are empty.

The above example displays the zero classifier. Following is an example of a fully inflected verb with the {{lang|apk|ł-}} classifier prefix:

{{interlinear |indent=2 |lang=apk

|top=Šìgółbèèš

|ši- go- ∅- ∅- ł- bèèš

|1SG.OBJ- NUM- IPFV- 3SBJ- CLF- boil

|'They two are boiling me'

}}

== Syntax ==

{{Main|Southern Athabascan grammar#Typological overview}}

Like other Southern Athabaskan languages, Plains Apache has strongly head-final tendencies, with a predominant word order of [[Subject–object–verb|subject-object-verb]] and [[postpositions]] rather than prepositions. This is illustrated in the following example sentences:

{{interlinear|indent=2| lang = apk

|top= Dèènáá kóó ʔíłbééš

|dèènáá kóó ʔí- ł- bééš

|man water INDEF- CLF- boil

|'The man boils water'}}

{{interlinear|indent=2| lang = apk

|top= Séé míídžǫ́ʔdą́ʔ dàyìɣínííł

|séé mi- džǫ́ʔ- dą́ʔ dà- yi- ɣí- ø- ø- nííł

|dirt 3SG- back- PP ADV- 3OBJ- PROG- 3SBJ- CLF- throw

|'He threw dirt on his back'}}

However, due to the morphological complexity of Plains Apache verb inflection, it is often possible for a sentence to consist of a single verb, e.g.

{{interlinear|indent=2| lang = apk

|top= Dàdį̀į̀mą̀ą̀s

|da- di- ∅- į̀į̀d- ∅- mą̀ą̀s

|NUM- THM- IPFV- 1DUPL.SBJ- CLF- {go to war}

|'Each one of us is starting off to war'}}

Noun phrases always contain only a noun, as Plains Apache has no determiners or adjectives; the equivalent of adjectival modification is achieved by the use of compound and nominalized nouns discussed above.

==See also==

Line 25 ⟶ 309:

==Notes==

{{Reflist|2}}

==References==

{{Refbegin|30em}}

* Bittle, William E. (n.d.). Plains Apache field notes. (Unpublished manuscript).

* {{Citation |last=Bittle |first=William E. |title=Plains Apache field notes |date=n.d. |type=Unpublished manuscript}}

* Bittle, William E. (1956). ''The position of Kiowa-Apache in the Apachean group''. (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles).

* {{Cite thesis |last=Bittle, |first=William E. (1963).|title=The position of Kiowa-Apache. In H. Hoijer (Ed.), ''Studies in the AthapaskanApachean languages''group (pp.&nbsp;76–101).|degree=PhD |publisher=University of California publications|year=1956 in|___location=Los linguistics (No. 29). Berkeley: University of California Press.Angeles}}

* {{Cite book |last=Bittle |first=William E. |title=Studies in the Athapaskan languages |publisher=University of California Press |year=1963 |editor-last=Hoijer |editor-first=H. |series=University of California publications in linguistics |volume=29 |___location=Berkeley |pages=76–101 |chapter=Kiowa-Apache |oclc=574743}}

* Bittle, William E. (1967). Kiowa-Apache. In H. Hoijer (Ed.), ''Studies in Southwestern ethnolinguistics: meaning and history in the languages of the American Southwest.'' Berkeley: University of California Press.

* {{Cite book |last=Bittle |first=William E. |title=Studies in Southwestern ethnolinguistics: meaning and history in the languages of the American Southwest |publisher=University of California Press |year=1967 |editor-last=Hoijer |editor-first=H. |___location=Berkeley |chapter=Kiowa-Apache}}

* Bittle, William E. (1971). A brief history of the Kiowa-Apache. Oklahoma Papers in Anthropology 12(1): 1-34.

* {{Cite journal |last=Bittle, |first=William E. (1979).|year=1971 Kiowa|title=A Apachebrief Raidinghistory Behavior.of the Kiowa-Apache |journal=Oklahoma Papers in Anthropology 20(2):|volume=12 33-47.|issue=1 |pages=1–34}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Bittle |first=William E. |year=1979 |title=Kiowa Apache Raiding Behavior |journal=Oklahoma Papers in Anthropology |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=33–47}}

* Collins, Melanie Ruth. (1983). Plains Apache: Strength Relations Among the Phonological Elements in a Dying Language. MA thesis, University of Oklahoma.

* {{Cite thesis |last=Collins |first=Melanie Ruth |title=Plains Apache: Strength Relations Among the Phonological Elements in a Dying Language |degree=MA |publisher=University of Oklahoma |year=1983}}

* Gatschet, Albert S. (1884). Na-isha Band, Apache (Kiowa Apache). Vocabulary and brief texts with interlinear translation November - December, 1884. Manuscript 62, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution. Washington, DC.

* Goddard, Pliny Earle. (1911). Field notes in California Athabascan languages. American Council of Learned Societies Committee on Native American Languages, American Philosophical Society. Philadelphia, PA.

* {{Cite book |last=Hoijer, |first=Harry. (1971). The Position of the Apachean Languages in the Athapaskan Stock. |title=Apachean Culture History and Ethnology, ed.|year=1971 by|editor-last=Basso |editor-first=Keith H. Basso and Morris E. Opler. |series=Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona |volume=21.3 |pages=3–6 |chapter=The Position of the Apachean Languages in the Athapaskan Stock |editor-6last2=Opler |editor-first2=Morris E.}}

* {{Cite thesis |last=Morgan |first=J. L. |title=Classificatory Verbs in Plains Apache |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Oklahoma |year=2012}}

{{Refend}}

{{Athabaskan languages}}

Line 43 ⟶ 330:

[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Plains]]

[[Category:LanguagesIndigenous languages of Oklahoma]]

[[Category:Southern Athabaskan languages]]

[[Category:Apache culture]]

[[Category:Endangered Dené–Yeniseian languages]]

[[Category:Articles with citation needed in ref field]]

[[Category:Extinct languages of North America]]

[[Category:Languages extinct in the 2000s]]

[[Category:Plains Apache]]

{{indigenousAmerican-lang-stub}}