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The primary cause of protocol ossification is [[middlebox]] interference,{{sfn|Papastergiou|Fairhurst|Ros|Brunstrom|2017|p=619}} invalidating the [[end-to-end principle]].{{sfn|Papastergiou|Fairhurst|Ros|Brunstrom|2017|p=620}} Middleboxes may entirely block unknown protocols or unrecognised extensions to known protocols, interfere with extension or feature negotiation, or perform more invasive modification of protocol metadata.{{sfn|Edeline|Donnet|2019|p=171}} Not all middlebox modifications are necessarily ossifying; of those which are potentially harmful, they are disproportionately towards the [[network edge]].{{sfn|Edeline|Donnet|2019|p=173-175}} Middleboxes are deployed by network operators unilaterally to solve specific problems,{{sfn|Edeline|Donnet|2019|p=169}} including performance optimisation, security requirements (e.g., firewalls), [[network address translation]] or enhancing control of networks.{{sfn|Honda|Nishida|Raiciu|Greenhalgh|2011|p=1}} These middlebox deployments provide localised short-term utility but degrade the global long-term evolvability of the Internet in a manifestation of the [[tragedy of the commons]].{{sfn|Edeline|Donnet|2019|p=169}}
Changes to a protocol must be tolerated by all on-path intermediaries; if wide Internet deployment of the change is desired, then this extends to a large portion of intermediaries on the Internet. A middlebox must tolerate widely
Beyond middleboxes, ossification can also be caused by insufficient flexibility within the endpoint's implementation. [[Operating system kernels]] are slow to change and deploy,{{sfn|Papastergiou|Fairhurst|Ros|Brunstrom|2017|p=621}} and protocols implemented in hardware can also inappropriately fix protocol details.{{sfn|Corbet|2015}} A widely
== Prevention and remediation ==
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