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Geotechnical engineers investigate and determine the properties of subsurface conditions and materials. They also design corresponding [[Earthworks (engineering)|earthworks]] and [[Retaining wall|retaining structures]], [[tunnel]]s, and structure [[foundation (engineering)|foundations]], and may supervise and evaluate sites, which may further involve site monitoring as well as the risk assessment and mitigation of [[natural hazard]]s.<ref name="TerzaghiPeckMesri">Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. and Mesri, G. (1996), ''Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice'' 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. {{ISBN|0-471-08658-4}}</ref><ref name="HoltzKovacs">Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981), ''An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering'', Prentice-Hall, Inc. {{ISBN|0-13-484394-0}}</ref>
Geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists perform geotechnical investigations to obtain information on the [[Physical property|physical properties]] of soil and rock underlying and adjacent to a site to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for the repair of distress to earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. Geotechnical investigations involve surface and subsurface exploration of a site, often including subsurface sampling and laboratory testing of retrieved soil samples. Sometimes, [[Exploration geophysics|geophysical methods]] are also used to obtain data, which include measurement of [[seismic waves]] (pressure, shear, and [[Rayleigh waves]]), surface-wave methods and downhole methods, and [[Prospecting|electromagnetic surveys]] (magnetometer, [[Electrical resistivity and conductivity|resistivity]], and [[ground-penetrating radar]]). [[Electrical resistivity tomography|Electrical tomography]] can be used to survey soil and rock properties and existing underground infrastructure in construction projects.<ref>Deep Scan Tech (2023): [https://www.deepscantech.com/news/deep-scan-tech-uncovers-hidden-structures-at-the-site-of-denmarks-tallest-building.html Deep Scan Tech uncovers hidden structures at the site of Denmark's tallest building].</ref>
Surface [[exploration]] can include on-foot surveys, [[
Various [[Geotechnical investigation#Soil sampling|soil samplers]] exist to meet the needs of different engineering projects. The [[standard penetration test]], which uses a thick-walled split spoon sampler, is the most common way to collect disturbed samples. Piston samplers, employing a thin-walled tube, are most commonly used to collect less disturbed samples. More advanced methods, such as the Sherbrooke block sampler, are superior but expensive. Coring frozen ground provides high-quality undisturbed samples from ground conditions, such as fill, sand, [[moraine]], and rock fracture zones.<ref name="Coring frozen ground">{{cite web | url=https://www.geofrost.no/en/ground-investigations/#Undisturbed%20samples | title=Geofrost Coring | publisher=GEOFROST | access-date=20 November 2020}}</ref>
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=== Foundation design ===
{{Main|Foundation (engineering)}}
The foundation of a structure's infrastructure transmits loads from the structure to the earth. Geotechnical [[engineer]]s design foundations based on the load characteristics of the structure and the properties of the soils and [[bedrock]] at the site. Generally, geotechnical engineers first estimate the magnitude and ___location of loads to be supported before developing an investigation plan to explore the subsurface and determine the necessary soil parameters through field and lab testing. Following this, they may begin the design of an engineering foundation. The primary considerations for a geotechnical engineer in foundation design are [[bearing capacity]], settlement, and ground movement beneath the foundations.<ref name="Han 2015">{{Cite book |last=Han |first=Jie |title=Principles and Practice of Ground Improvement |publisher=Wiley |year=2015 |isbn=9781118421307}}</ref>
=== Earthworks ===
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==Observational method==
First proposed by [[Karl Terzaghi]] and later discussed in a paper by [[Ralph Brazelton Peck|Ralph B. Peck]], the observational method is a managed process of construction control, monitoring, and review, which enables modifications to be incorporated during and after construction. The method aims to achieve a greater overall economy without compromising [[safety]] by creating designs based on the most probable conditions rather than the most unfavorable.<ref>Nicholson, D, Tse, C and Penny, C. (1999). The Observational Method in ground engineering – principles and applications. Report 185, CIRIA, London.</ref> Using the observational method, gaps in available information are filled by measurements and investigation, which aid in assessing the behavior of the structure during [[construction]], which in turn can be modified per the findings. The method was described by Peck as "learn-as-you-go".<ref name="peck">Peck, R.B (1969). Advantages and limitations of the observational method in applied soil mechanics, Geotechnique, 19, No. 1, pp.
The observational method may be described as follows:<ref name="peck" />
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* Bates and Jackson, 1980, Glossary of Geology: American Geological Institute.
* Krynine and Judd, 1957, Principles of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics: McGraw-Hill, New York.
*
* Pierfranco Ventura, Fondazioni, Applicazioni: Verifiche Statiche e Sismiche Strutture-Terreni, vol. II, , Milano, Hoepli, 2019, pp.749,ISBN 978-88-203-8645-0 https://www.hoeplieditore.it/hoepli-catalogo/articolo/fondazioni-modellazioni-pierfrancventura/9788820386443/1451
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