|
The [[District of Columbia]], the [[national capital]] of the [[United States]], was formed in 1790 from 100 [[square mile]]s that were [[cession|ceded]] to the federal government by the [[U.S. state|states]] of [[Maryland]] and [[Virginia]].
{{Otheruses}}
'''Retrocession''' is defined as the reversal of a [[cession]], returning land to the entities to which it originally belonged. The 32 square miles originally ceded by Virginia were returned to Virginia in 1847, and some have proposed that the remaining 68 square miles, or most of them, be returned to Maryland.
{{drugbox
| IUPAC_name = methyl (1''R'',2''R'',3''S'',5''S'')-3- (benzoyloxy)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1] octane-2-carboxylate
| image = Cocaine-2D-skeletal.svg
| image2 = Cocaine-3D-balls.png
| CAS_number = 50-36-2
| ATC_prefix = N01
| ATC_suffix = BC01
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|R02|AD03}}, {{ATC|S01|HA01}}, {{ATC|S02|DA02}}
| PubChem = 5760
| DrugBank = APRD00080
| C=17 | H=21 | N=1 | O=4
| molecular_weight = 303.353 g/mol
| melting_point = 195
| solubility = 1800
| bioavailability = Oral: 30%<br/>Nasal: 30-60% <ref name="pagliaros">{{cite book | first=Louis | last=Pagliaro | coauthors=Ann Marie Pagliaro | title=Pagliaros’ Comprehensive Guide to Drugs and Substances of Abuse | publisher=[[American Pharmacists Association]] | ___location=Washington, D.C. | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-58212-066-8 | curly=true}}</ref>
| protein_bound =
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]] [[CYP3A4]]
| elimination_half-life = 1 hour
| excretion = Renal (benzoylecgonine and ecgonine methyl ester)
| pregnancy_category = C
| legal_AU = Schedule 9
| legal_CA = Schedule I
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_UK = Class A
| legal_status =
| routes_of_administration = Topical, Oral, Insufflation, IV, PO
| dependency_liability = High
}}
'''Cocaine''' (or '''crack''' in its impure [[freebase]] form) is a [[crystalline]] [[tropane]] [[alkaloid]] that is obtained from the leaves of the [[coca]] plant. It is a [[stimulant]] of the [[central nervous system]] and an [[appetite suppressant]], giving rise to what has been described as a euphoric sense of happiness and increased energy, and post production. It is most often used recreationally for this effect. Nonetheless, cocaine is formally used in medicine as a topical [[anesthesia|anesthetic]], specifically in [[eye surgery|eye]], nose and throat [[surgery]].
== Virginia retrocession ==
There is controversy among treatment professionals over whether cocaine is psychologically or physically [[addiction|addictive]] or both.<ref>For years treatment professionals told us cocaine was not physically addictive (some still do). Cocaine addicts were offered little support and frequently accused of being ‘weak willed' or of imagining withdrawal symptoms. Unlike heroin, alcohol or tranquillizers that have a dramatic withdrawal syndrome, inducing obvious physical symptoms, the physical addiction to cocaine takes place in the mostly in the brain. Physical withdrawal is not dangerous, and is in fact restorative. Over time with repeated use, your brain becomes addicted to cocaine. Cocaine attaches its self to the receptor sites in your brain where the pleasurable neurochemicals (dopamine especially) are stored, they then wash around in your system for a while making you feel high, before being excreted from your body and lost. The net result is that you are left with a shortage of dopamine, without enough dopamine you feel miserable and irritable and in extreme cases can experience [[anhedonia]], a near inability to experience pleasure from normally pleasurable activities and objects. [http://www.cocaine-addiction.co.uk/q&a.htm]</ref>
Almost immediately after the "Federal City" was laid out north of the [[Potomac River]], the residents south of the Potomac in [[Alexandria County, D.C.]] began petitioning to be returned to Virginia's jurisdiction. Over time, a movement grew to separate [[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]] from the District for several reasons:
* Alexandria was an important port and market in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. There was increasing talk of [[Abolitionism|abolition]] of slavery in the national capital, and Alexandria's economy would suffer greatly if slavery were outlawed.
* There was an active abolition movement in Virginia, and the pro-slavery forces held a slim majority in the [[Virginia General Assembly]]. (Eighteen years later, in the [[American Civil War]], the most anti-slavery counties would secede from Virginia to form [[West Virginia]].) If Alexandria and Alexandria County were retroceded to Virginia, they would provide two new pro-slavery representatives.
* Alexandria's economy had stagnated as competition with the port of [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.|Georgetown, D.C.]] had begun to favor the north side of the Potomac. The [[Chesapeake and Ohio Canal]] was already helping Georgetown take more business from Alexandria, and the canal was still being extended.
* Alexandria's residents had lost representation and the right to vote at any level of government.
After a referendum, voters petitioned Congress and Virginia to return the area to Virginia. By an act of Congress on [[9 July]], [[1846]], and with the approval of the Virginia General Assembly, the area south of the Potomac (39 square miles [101 km²]) was returned, or "retroceded," to Virginia effective in [[1847]].[http://www.citymuseumdc.org/gettoknow/faq.asp]
The stimulating qualities of the coca leaf were known to the ancient peoples of Peru and other pre-Columbian Andean societies. In modern Western countries, cocaine has been a feature of the [[counterculture]] for over a century. There is a long list of prominent intellectuals, artists, politicians, and musicians who have used the drug — ranging from [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] and [[Sigmund Freud]] to U.S. Presidents [[Ulysses S. Grant]] and [[George W. Bush substance abuse controversy|allegedly]] [[George W. Bush]]. Cocaine could be found in trace amounts in the [[Coca-Cola]] beverage for several decades after the beverage's release, though that is no longer the case.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/cocaine.asp snopes.com]</ref>
The retroceded land was then known as [[Alexandria County, Virginia]], and now includes a portion of the [[independent city]] of [[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]] and all of [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington County]], the successor to Alexandria County. A large portion of the retroceded land near the river was an estate of [[George Washington Parke Custis]]. It would be passed on to his daughter and her husband, [[Robert E. Lee]], and would eventually become [[Arlington National Cemetery]].
Its possession, cultivation, and distribution are illegal for non-medicinal and non-government sanctioned purposes in virtually all parts of the world. The name comes from the name of the ''coca'' plant in addition to the alkaloid suffix ''-ine'', forming ''Cocaine''. Today, although its free commercialization is illegal and has been severely penalized in virtually all countries, its use worldwide remains widespread in many social, cultural, and personal settings.
== Proposed Maryland retrocession ==
== Pharmacology ==
=== Appearance ===
[[Image:CocaineHydrochloridePowder.jpg|right|thumb|A pile of cocaine hydrochloride]]
Cocaine in its purest form is a white, pearly product. Cocaine appearing in powder form is a [[salt]], typically cocaine [[hydrochloride]] ([[CAS registry number|CAS]] 53-21-4). Street market cocaine is frequently adulterated or “cut” with various powdery fillers to increase its weight; the substances most commonly used in this process are [[baking soda]]; sugars, such as [[lactose]], [[dextrose]], [[inositol]], and [[mannitol]]; and local anesthetics, such as [[lidocaine]] or [[benzocaine]], which mimic or add to cocaine's numbing effect on mucous membranes. Cocaine may also be "cut" with other stimulants such as [[methamphetamine]]. <ref>[http://designer-drugs.com/pte/12.162.180.114/dcd/chemistry/psychedelicchemistry/chapter8.html Psychedelic Chemistry: Cocaine]</ref> Adulterated cocaine is often a white, off-white or pinkish powder.
It has been proposed that the remainder of the District be given back to Maryland. Retrocession would take a simple act of [[U.S. Congress|Congress]], though it is generally accepted that Congress would not take such a step without the approval of Marylanders and Washingtonians via referenda. Currently, there is little support for retrocession, though some see it as a solution to the twin problems of [[D.C. voting rights]] and [[D.C. home rule]].
The color of [[crack cocaine|“crack” cocaine]] depends upon several factors including the origin of the cocaine used, the method of preparation – with [[ammonia]] or [[sodium bicarbonate]] – and the presence of impurities, but will generally range from white to a yellowish cream to a light brown. Its texture will also depend on the adulterants, origin and processing of the powdered cocaine, and the method of converting the base. It ranges from a crumbly texture, sometimes extremely oily, to a hard, almost crystalline nature.
Such a move, according to some, would be [[constitutional]] if at least the part of the District that contains the main offices of government (the National Capital Service Area) were to remain in the District officially; the [[U.S. Constitution]] requires a national capital "not exceeding ten Miles square", but does not specify a minimum size for the District. However, it is unclear if the Constitution even requires the creation of a District to begin with; after all, the country did not have such a district until Washington was founded. If it does, then such a move would require, as a technicality, the repeal of the [[Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution|23rd Amendment]] due to there being no citizens of such a district. The only residents of such a rump district would be the [[First Family of the United States|First Family]], who vote in their hometown (plus, possibly, some [[homeless]] people).
=== Forms of cocaine ===
==== Cocaine sulfate ====
The remainder of Washington would become a city in Maryland, allowing residents to vote for Maryland's Congressional delegation like any other resident of the state, as well as in state elections.
Cocaine sulfate is produced by macerating coca leaves along with [[water]] that has been acidulated with sulfuric acid, or an aromatic-based solvent, like kerosene or [[benzene]]. This is often accomplished by putting the ingredients into a vat and stamping on it, in a manner similar to the traditional method for crushing [[grape]]s. After the maceration is completed, the water is evaporated to yield a pasty mass of impure cocaine sulfate.
=== Arguments for retrocession ===
The sulfate salt itself is an intermediate step to producing cocaine hydrochloride. In [[South America]], it is commonly sold to consumers as such, and smoked along with tobacco, also known as ''pasta,'' ''basuco,'' ''basa,'' ''pitillo,'' ''paco'' or simply ''paste.'' It is also gaining popularity as a cheap drug (30 to 70 U.S. cents per "hit" or dose) in many South American countries.
Proponents like the Committee for the Capital City feel such a move would be of financial benefit to Washington; the city would be relieved of burdens not shared by other American cities such as running a [[prison]] system and a [[Department of Motor Vehicles]], and it would finally be free from the veto power of the [[United States Congress]]. Maryland would benefit from the prestige of being the home state of the national capital of the world's [[superpower]] and would gain additional tax revenue. Congress would benefit from no longer having to scrutinize the decisions of the city government; committees overseeing DC government have traditionally been amongst the least prestigious jobs for members. Further, it would give most residents of the District a say in federal government, as they would be able to vote for a representative and senators, and thus have representation.
==== Freebase ====
{{main|Freebase}}
As the name implies, “freebase” is the [[Base (chemistry)|base]] form of cocaine, as opposed to the [[salt]] form of cocaine hydrochloride. Whereas cocaine hydrochloride is extremely [[soluble]] in [[water]], cocaine base is insoluble in water and is therefore not suitable for drinking, snorting or injecting. Whereas cocaine hydrochloride is not well-suited for smoking because the [[temperature]] at which it [[evaporation|vaporizes]] is very high, and close to the temperature at which it [[combustion|burns]]; however, cocaine base [[evaporation|vaporizes]] at a much lower temperature, which makes it suitable for inhalation.
=== Arguments against retrocession ===
Smoking freebase is preferred by many users because the cocaine is absorbed immediately into [[blood]] via the [[lungs]], where it reaches the [[brain]] in about five seconds. The rush is much more intense than sniffing the same amount of cocaine nasally, but the effects do not last as long. The peak of the freebase rush is over almost as soon as the user exhales the vapor, but the high typically lasts 5–10 minutes afterward. What makes freebasing particularly dangerous is that users typically don't wait that long for their next hit and will continue to smoke freebase until none is left. These effects are similar to those that can be achieved by injecting or “slamming” cocaine hydrochloride, but without the risks associated with [[intravenous]] drug use (though there are other serious risks associated with smoking freebase).
Proponents of [[D.C. statehood]] are against the idea of retrocession because they feel that the city, having been separated from Maryland since the [[18th century]], has a separate identity; although Maryland is mere city blocks away from many Washingtonians, there is no connection to the state for them. Others see it as a means to block proper representation, which they feel includes two senators. Because the city is a stronghold of the [[U.S. Democratic Party|Democratic Party]], [[U.S. Republican Party|Republican]]s in the [[U.S. Senate|Senate]] would not be eager to admit the District as a state. Republicans would have less of a problem giving the city back to Maryland, as that would, given the city's current population, add only a single Democrat to the [[U.S. House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. Many in Washington object to Maryland's use of the [[death penalty]], which has been abolished in the District. Many in Maryland, meanwhile, object to retrocession because they feel that the city, which has relatively high crime and poverty rates, would be a burden on state government agencies. Others feel that the federal government should have a role in running the national capital; such a role allows for proper management of the city as a symbol of the nation and can be used to reject projects that would be seen by a majority of Americans as ruinous to the capital. Finally, the measure still fails to completely solve the problem of voting representation for all Washingtonians, because any transfer of less than the entirety of the District could still leave some citizens without representation.
Freebase cocaine is produced by first dissolving cocaine hydrochloride in water. Once dissolved in water, cocaine hydrochloride (Coc HCl) dissociates into protonated cocaine [[ion]] (Coc-H<sup><small>+</small></sup>) and [[chloride]] ion (Cl<sup><small>–</small></sup>). Any [[solid]]s that remain in the [[solution]] are not cocaine (they are part of the cut) and are removed by [[Filter (chemistry)|filtering]]. A base, typically [[ammonia]] (NH<sub><small>3</small></sub>), is added to the [[solution]]. The following net [[chemical reaction]] takes place:
== Current legislation ==
<div align="center" style="line-height: 2em;">Coc-H<sup><small>+</small><sup>Cl<sup><small>–</small><sup> + NH<sub><small>3</small></sub> → Coc + NH<sub><small>4</small></sub>Cl</div>
On April 16, 2007, Rep. [[Louie Gohmert]] ([[Republican|R]]-[[Texas]]) introduced H.R. 1858, the "District of Columbia-Maryland Reunion Act," which would transfer the bulk of Washington to Maryland if Maryland will have it.[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c110:H.R.1858.IH:]
As freebase cocaine (Coc) is insoluble in water, it [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitates]] and the solution becomes cloudy. To recover the freebase, a [[nonpolar]] solvent like [[diethyl ether]] is added to the solution: Because freebase is highly soluble in ether, a vigorous shaking of the mixture results in the freebase being dissolved in the ether. As [[ether]] is insoluble in water, it can be [[siphon]]ed off. The ether is then evaporated, leaving behind the cocaine base.
==See also==
Handling diethyl ether is dangerous because ether is extremely [[flammable]], its vapors are heavier than air and can “creep” from an open bottle, and in the presence of oxygen it can form [[diethyl ether peroxide|peroxide]]s, which can spontaneously combust. Demonstrative of the dangers of the practice, comedian [[Richard Pryor]] used to perform a skit in which he poked fun at himself over a 1980 incident in which he caused an explosion and ignited himself attempting to smoke “freebase”, presumably while still wet with ether.
*[[Washington, D.C.]]
*[[District of Columbia voting rights]]
*[[District of Columbia home rule]]
*[[District of Columbia Vote in House of Representatives]]
*[[D.C. Statehood]]
Freebasing, while powerful, ultimately causes chronic paranoia and loss of sound judgment in the user. The rapid decline of porn actor [[John C. Holmes]] and his involvement in the 1981 massacre of the [[Wonderland Gang]] were among the first signs of the dangers of the then-growing freebase phenomenon.
{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
==== Crack cocaine ====
Main article: ''[[Crack cocaine]]''
[[Image:Crack street dosage.jpg|thumb|right|A pile of [[crack cocaine]] ‘rocks’.]]
Due to the dangers of using ether to produce pure freebase cocaine, cocaine producers began to omit the step of removing the freebase cocaine precipitate from the ammonia mixture. Typically, filtration processes are also omitted. The end result of this process is that the cut, in addition to the ammonium salt (NH<sub><small>4</small></sub>Cl), remains in the freebase cocaine after the mixture is evaporated. The “rock” that is thus formed also contains a small amount of water. Sodium bicarbonate ([[baking soda]]) is also preferred in preparing the freebase, for when commonly "cooked" the ratio is 50/50 to 40/60 percent cocaine/bicarbonate. This acts as a filler which extends the overall profitability of illicit sales. Crack cocaine may be reprocessed in small quantities with water (users refer to the resultant product as "cookback"). This removes the residual bicarbonate, and any adulterants or cuts that have been used in the previous handling of the cocaine and leaves a relatively pure, anhydrous cocaine base.
When the rock is heated, this water boils, making a crackling sound (hence the onomatopoeic “crack”). Baking soda is now most often used as a base rather than ammonia for reasons of lowered stench and toxicity; however, any weak base can be used to make crack cocaine. Strong bases, such as sodium hydroxide, tend to [[hydrolyze]] some of the cocaine into non-psychoactive [[ecgonine]].
Crack cocaine was extremely popular in the mid- and late [[1980s]] in a period known as the [[Crack Epidemic]], especially in inner cities, though its popularity declined through the [[1990s]] in the United States.
==== Chewed/eaten ====
Coca leaves typically are mixed with an alkaline substance (such as lime) and chewed into a wad that is retained in the mouth between gum and cheek and sucked of its juices. The juices are absorbed slowly by the mucous membrane of the inner cheek and by the gastro-intestinal tract when swallowed. Alternatively, coca leaves can be infused in liquid and consumed like tea. Ingesting coca leaves generally is an inefficient means of administering cocaine. Advocates of the consumption of the coca leaf, state that coca leaf consumption should not be criminalized as it is not actual cocaine, and consequently it is not properly the illicit drug. Because cocaine is hydrolyzed and rendered inactive in the acidic stomach, it is not readily absorbed when ingested alone. Only when mixed with a highly alkaline substance (such as lime) can it be absorbed into the bloodstream through the stomach. The efficiency of absorption of orally administered cocaine is limited by two additional factors. First, the drug is partly catabolized by the liver. Second, capillaries in the mouth and esophagus constrict after contact with the drug, reducing the surface area over which the drug can be absorbed. Nevertheless, cocaine metabolites can be detected in the urine of subjects that have sipped even one cup of coca leaf infusion. Therefore, this is an actual additional form of administration of cocaine albeit inefficient.
Orally administered cocaine takes approximately 30 minutes to enter the bloodstream. Typically, only a third of an oral dose is absorbed, although absorption has been shown to reach 60 percent in controlled settings. Given the slow rate of absorption, maximum physiological and psychotropic effects are attained approximately 60 minutes after cocaine is administered by ingestion. While the onset of these effects is slow, the effects are sustained for approximately 60 minutes after their peak is attained.
Contrary to popular belief, both ingestion and insufflation result in approximately the same proportion of the drug being absorbed: 30 to 60 percent. Compared to ingestion, the faster absorption of insufflated cocaine results in quicker attainment of maximum drug effects. Snorting cocaine produces maximum physiological effects within 40 minutes and maximum psychotropic effects within 20 minutes, however, a more realistic activation period is closer to 5 to 10 minutes, which is similar to ingestion of cocaine. Physiological and psychotropic effects from nasally insufflated cocaine are sustained for approximately 40 - 60 minutes after the peak effects are attained.<ref>G. Barnett, R. Hawks and R. Resnick, "Cocaine Pharmacokinetics in Humans," 3 Journal of Ethnopharmacology 353 (1981); Jones, supra note 19; Wilkinson ''et al.'', Van Dyke ''et al.''</ref>
''[[Mate de coca]]'' or coca-leaf infusion is also a traditional method of consumption and is often recommended in coca producing countries, like Peru and Bolivia, to ameliorate some symptoms of [[altitude sickness]]. This method of consumption has been practiced for many centuries by the native tribes of South America. One specific purpose of ancient coca leaf consumption was to increase energy and reduce fatigue in messengers who made multi-day quests to other settlements.
In [[1986]] an article in the ''[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]'' revealed that U.S. health food stores were selling dried coca leaves to be prepared as an infusion as “Health Inca Tea.”<ref>{{cite journal | author=Siegel RK, Elsohly MA, Plowman T, Rury PM, Jones RT | title=Cocaine in herbal tea | journal=Journal of the American Medical Association | year=January 3, 1986 | volume=255|issue=1| pages=40 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=3940302&query_hl=3&itool=pubmed_docsum |curly=true}}</ref> While the packaging claimed it had been “decocainized,” no such process had actually taken place. The article stated that drinking two cups of the tea per day gave a mild [[stimulation]], increased [[heart rate]], and [[Emotional mood|mood]] elevation, and the tea was essentially harmless. Despite this, the [[Drug Enforcement Agency|DEA]] seized several shipments in [[Hawaii]], [[Chicago|Chicago, Illinois]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and several locations on the [[East Coast of the United States]], and the product was removed from the shelves.<ref name="dominic_streatfeild"/> Nevertheless, today coca leaf teabags (named "mate de coca") illegally smuggled into the U.S. can be readily purchased online via Internet stores and even [[eBay]].
==== Insufflation ====
[[Insufflation]] (known colloquially as “snorting," “sniffing," or "blowing") is the most common method of ingestion of recreational powder cocaine in the Western world. Contrary to widespread belief, cocaine is not actually inhaled using this method. The drug coats and is absorbed through the [[mucous membrane]]s lining the [[Paranasal sinus|sinuses]]. When insufflating cocaine, absorption through the nasal membranes is approximately 30-60 percent, with higher doses leading to increased absorption efficiency. Any material not directly absorbed through the mucous membranes is collected in [[mucus]] and swallowed (this "drip" is considered pleasant by some and unpleasant by others). In a study<ref name="Volkow">{{cite journal
| author = [[Nora D. Volkow]] ''et al.''
| title = Effects of route of administration on cocaine induced dopamine transporter blockade in the human brain
| pmid = 10983846
| year=2000
| journal = [[Life Sci.]]
| month = August
| volume = 67
| issue = 12
| pages = 1507-1515
}}</ref> of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 14.6 minutes. Chronic use results in ongoing [[rhinitis]] and [[necrosis]] of the nasal membranes.{{fact}} Many users report a burning sensation in the nares (nostrils) after cocaine's anesthetic effects wear off. Any damage to the inside of the nose is because cocaine highly constricts blood vessels — and therefore blood & oxygen/nutrient flow-- to that area. If this restriction of adequate blood supply is severe enough and, especially prolonged enough, the tissue there can die.{{fact}}
Prior to insufflation, cocaine powder must be divided into very fine particles. Cocaine of high purity breaks into fine dust very easily, except when it is moist (not well stored) and forms “chunks,” which reduces the efficiency of nasal absorption.
Rolled up [[currency|banknotes]], hollowed-out [[pen]]s, cut [[drinking straw|straw]]s, pointed ends of keys, and specialized [[cocaine spoon|spoon]]s are often used to insufflate cocaine. Such devices are often called "tooters" by users. The cocaine typically is poured onto a flat, hard surface (such as a [[mirror]]) and divided into "lines" or "rails", and then insufflated. The amount of cocaine in a line varies widely from person to person and occasion to occasion (the purity of the cocaine is also a factor), but one line is generally considered to be a single dose and is typically 35mg-100mg. As tolerance builds rapidly in the short-term (hours), many lines are often snorted to produce greater effects.
==== Injected ====
[[Drug injection]] provides the highest blood levels of drug in the shortest amount of time. Upon injection, cocaine reaches the brain in a matter of seconds, and the exhilarating rush that follows can be so intense that it induces some users to vomit uncontrollably. In a study<ref name="Volkow" /> of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 3.1 minutes. The euphoria passes quickly. Aside from the toxic effects of cocaine, there is also danger of circulatory [[embolism|emboli]] from the insoluble substances that may be used to cut the drug. There is also a risk of serious infection associated with the use of contaminated needles.
An injected mixture of cocaine and [[heroin]], known as “[[speedball (drug)|speedball]]” or “moonrock”, is a particularly popular and dangerous combination, as the converse effects of the drugs actually complement each other, but may also mask the symptoms of an overdose. It has been responsible for numerous deaths, particularly in and around [[Los Angeles]], including celebrities such as [[John Belushi]], [[Chris Farley]] (in [[Chicago)]], [[River Phoenix]] and [[Layne Staley]] (in Seattle).
Experimentally, cocaine injections can be delivered to animals such as fruit flies to study the mechanisms of cocaine addiction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Dimitrijevic N, Dzitoyeva S, Manev H|title=An automated assay of the behavioral effects of cocaine injections in adult Drosophila|journal=J Neurosci Methods|year=2004|month=August|volume=137|issue=2|pages=181–184|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15262059&query_hl=21|curly=1}}</ref>
==== Smoked ====
: ''See also: [[Cocaine#Crack cocaine|crack cocaine]] above.''
Smoking freebase or crack cocaine is most often accomplished using a pipe made from a small glass tube about one quarter-inch (about 6 mm) in diameter and on the average, four inches long. These are sometimes called "stems", "horns", "blasters" and "straight shooters," readily available in convenience stores or smoke shops. They will sometimes contain a small paper flower and are promoted as a romantic gift. Buyers usually ask for a "rose" or a "flower." An alternate method is to use a small length of a radio antenna or similar metal tube. To avoid burning the user's fingers and lips on the metal pipe, a small piece of paper or cardboard (such as a piece torn from a matchbook cover) is wrapped around one end of the pipe and held in place with either a rubber band or a piece of adhesive tape. A popular (usually pejorative) term for crack pipes is "glass dick." Tire pressure gauges have also been used by breaking off their tops and removing their numbered sticks. These can be purchased at most convenience stores or gas stations.
A small piece (approximately one inch) of heavy steel or stainless steel scouring pad (copper is never used as it can make the lungs bleed)—often called a [[Brillo Pad|"brillo"]] or [[Chore Boy|"chore"]], from the scouring pads of the same name—is placed into one end of the tube and carefully packed down to approximately three-quarter inch. Prior to insertion, the "brillo" is burnt off to remove any oily coatings that may be present. It then serves as a reduction base and flow modulator in which the "rock" can be melt and boiled to vapor. [[Stainless steel]] television cable are also used, with its metal acting as a screen.
Another method is to use a deep socket, typically 12mm, wrapped with electrical tape. Instead of [[Chore Boy]], users typically employ high grade (very fine) [[speaker wire]] rolled into a ball as the filter medium. A [[Zippo]] lighter is often used because of its stronger flame, but the taste of [[naphtha]] is quite noticeable. However, the socket is practically indestructible and inconspicuous.
A less sophisticated but common method is to use a discarded [[soda can]] and puncture several small holes on the side of the can near its bottom. [[Tobacco]] ash is then placed in the divot created with the drug placed on top. The mouthpiece is the original opening of the can, creating a cost-effective alternative to a proper crack pipe.
To smoke the "rock" it is placed at the end of the pipe, closest to the filter. The other end is then placed in the user's mouth and a flame from a [[cigarette lighter]] or hand-held [[torch]] is held under the "rock". As the "rock" is heated, it melts and burns away to vapor, which the user inhales as smoke.
The effects, felt almost immediately after smoking, are very intense and do not last long—usually five to fifteen minutes. In a study<ref name="Volkow" /> performed on crack cocaine users, the average time taken for them to reach their peak subjective "high" was 1.4 minutes. Most (especially frequent) users crave more immediately after the peak. "[[Crack house]]s" depend on these cravings by providing a place for smoking crack to its users, and a ready supply of small bags for sale.
A heavily-used crack pipe tends to fracture at its end due to overheating from the flame used to heat the crack, typically because users attempt to inhale every last bit of the drug on the metal wool filter. The end is often broken further as users "push" the pipe. "Pushing" is a technique used to partially recover crack that hardens on the inside wall of the pipe as the pipe cools. This is accomplished by pushing the metal wool filter through the pipe from one end to the other in order to collect the build-up inside the pipe, which is a very pure and potent form of the base. The ends of the pipe can be broken by the object used to push the filter—frequently a small screwdriver or stiff piece of wire. Users will often remove the most jagged edges and continue using the pipe until it becomes so short that it burns their lips and fingers. To continue using the pipe, users will sometimes wrap a small piece of paper or cardboard around its one end and hold it in place with a rubber band or adhesive tape. Of course, not all crack cocaine users will allow it to get that short, and will instead opt for a new or different pipe. The telltale signs of a used crack pipe are a glass tube with burn marks at one or both ends and a clump of metal wool inside. The language referring to paraphernalia and practices of smoking cocaine vary across the United States, as do the packaging methods in the street level sale.
When smoked, cocaine is sometimes combined with other drugs, such as [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]]; often rolled into a joint or [[Blunt (drug culture)|blunt]]. This combination is known as "[[primo]]", "chronic", "hype", "shake and bake", a "turbo", a "yolabowla", "SnowCaps", "Canadian Health Care", "B-51er", a "cocoapuff", a "dirty", a "woo", or "geeking." Crack smokers who are being drug tested may also make their "primo" with cigarette tobacco instead of cannabis, since a crack smoker can test clean within two to three days of use, if only urine (and not hair) is being tested.
Powder cocaine is sometimes smoked, but it is inefficient as the heat involved destroys much of the chemical. One way of smoking powder is to put a "bump" into the end of an unlit cigarette, smoking it in one go as the user lights the cigarette normally. This cigarette is then referred to as a "Jimmy". Alternatively, cocaine powder may be sprinkled onto the marijuana in a blunt or possibly a joint and then smoked. This is known as a "Chewy" or may also be referred to by one of the names mentioned above for crack-laced marijuana. When a marijuana [[Bowl (drug culture)|bowl]] is laced with cocaine powder, it is often refered to as a "SnowCap" because the marijuana is "capped" with cocaine on top.
==== Coca leaf infusions ====
Coca herbal [[infusion]] (also referred to as coca tea) is used in coca-leaf producing countries much as any herbal medicinal infusion would elsewhere in the world. The free and legal commercialization of dried coca leaves under the form of filtration bags to be used as "coca tea" has been actively promoted by the governments of [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] for many years as a drink having medicinal powers. Visitors to the city of [[Cuzco]] in Peru, and [[La Paz]] in Bolivia are greeted with the offering of coca leaf infusions (prepared in tea pots with whole coca leaves) purportedly to help the newly-arrived traveler overcome the malaise of high altitude sickness. The effects of drinking coca tea are a mild stimulation and mood lift. It does not produce any significant numbing of the mouth nor does it give a rush like snorting cocaine. In order to prevent the demonization of this product, its promoters publicize the unproven concept that much of the effect of the ingestion of coca leaf infusion would come from the secondary alkaloids, as being not only quantitatively different from pure cocaine but also qualitatively different.
It has been promoted as an adjuvant for the treatment of cocaine dependence. In one controversial study, coca leaf infusion was used -in addition to counseling- to treat 23 addicted coca-paste smokers in [[Lima]], [[Peru]]. Relapses fell from an average of four times per month before treatment with coca tea to one during the treatment. The duration of abstinence increased from an average of 32 days prior to treatment to 217 days during treatment. These results suggest that the administration of coca leaf infusion plus counseling would be an effective method for preventing relapse during treatment for cocaine addiction.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Teobaldo, Llosa|title=The Standard Low Dose of Oral Cocaine: Used for Treatment of Cocaine Dependence|journal=Substance Abuse|year=1994|volume=15|issue=4|pages=215–220|curly=true}}</ref> Importantly, these results also suggest strongly that the primary pharmacologically active metabolite in coca leaf infusions is actually cocaine and not the secondary alkaloids.
The cocaine metabolite [[benzoylecgonine]] can be detected in the urine of people a few hours after drinking one cup of coca leaf infusion.
==== Oral ====
Cocaine has been used medically and informally as an oral anesthetic. Many users rub the powder along the gum line, or onto a cigarette filter which is then smoked, which numbs the gums and teeth - hence the colloquial names of "numbies," or "gummy," for this type of administration. This is commonly done with the small amounts of cocaine remaining on a surface after insufflation. Another oral method is to wrap up some cocaine in rolling paper and swallow it. This is called "parachuting".
=== Physical mechanisms ===
The pharmacodynamics of cocaine are complex. One significant effect of cocaine on the [[central nervous system]] is the blockage of the [[dopamine transporter]] protein (DAT). Dopamine [[transmitter]] released during neural signaling is normally recycled via the transporter; i.e., the transporter binds the transmitter and pumps it out of the synaptic cleft back into the pre-synaptic neuron, where it is taken up into storage [[Vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s. Cocaine binds tightly at the DAT forming a complex that blocks the transporter's function. The DAT can no longer perform its reuptake function, and thus [[dopamine]] accumulates in the extracellular space (synaptic cleft). This results in an enhanced and prolonged post-synaptic effect of dopaminergic signalling at dopamine receptors on the receiving neuron. Prolonged exposure to cocaine, as occurs with habitual use, leads to homeostatic dysregulation of normal (i.e., without cocaine) dopaminergic signaling via downregulation of D1 receptors and enhanced [[signal transduction]]. The decreased dopaminergic signalling after chronic cocaine use may contribute to depressive mood disorders and sensitize this important brain reward circuit to the reinforcing effects of cocaine (e.g., enhanced dopaminergic signalling only when cocaine is self-administered). This sensitization contributes to the intractable nature of addiction and relapse.
Dopamine-rich brain regions such as the ventral tegmental area (VTA), [[nucleus accumbens]] (nAC), and prefrontal [[Cerebral cortex|cortex]] (PFC) are frequent targets of cocaine addiction research. Of particular interest is the pathway consisting of dopaminergic neurons originating in the VTA that terminate in the nAC. This projection functions as a "reward center" in that it shows activation is response to drugs of abuse like cocaine in addition to natural rewards like food or sex (R Spanagel and F Weiss, The dopamine hypothesis of reward: past and current status. Trends Neurosci 22 (1999), pp. 521–527). While the precise role of DA in the subjective experience of reward is controversial among neuroscientists, the release of DA in the nAC is widely considered to be responsible for cocaine's rewarding effects. This conclusion is largely based on laboratory data involving rats that are trained to self-administer cocaine intravenously (i.v.). If DA antagonists are infused directly into the nAC, well-trained rats self-administering cocaine will undergo extinction (i.e., initially increase responding only to stop completely) thereby indicating that cocaine is no longer reinforcing (i.e., rewarding) the drug-seeking behavior. <!-- which of these are the pleasure centers? -->
Cocaine is also a less potent blocker of the [[monoamine transporter|norepinephrine transporter]] (NET) and [[serotonin transporter]] (SERT). Cocaine also blocks [[ion channel|sodium channels]], thereby interfering with the propagation of [[action potential]]s; thus, like [[lignocaine]] and [[novocaine]], it acts as a local anesthetic. Cocaine also causes [[vasoconstriction]], thus reducing bleeding during minor surgical procedures. The locomotor enhancing properties of cocaine may be attributable to its enhancement of dopaminergic transmission from the [[substantia nigra]]. Recent research points to an important role of circadian mechanisms<ref>{{cite journal | author = Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H | title = The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice. | journal = Neuropsychopharmacology | volume = 28 | issue = 12 | pages = 2117-23 | year = 2003 | id = PMID 12865893}}</ref> and clock genes<ref>{{cite journal | author = McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E | title = Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene. | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | volume = 102 | issue = 26 | pages = 9377-81 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 15967985}}</ref> in behavioral actions of cocaine.
Because [[nicotine]] increases the levels of dopamine in the brain, many cocaine users find that consumption of [[tobacco]] products during cocaine use enhances the euphoria. This, however, may have undesirable consequences, such as uncontrollable [[chain smoking]] during cocaine use (even users who don't normally smoke [[cigarettes]] have been known to chain smoke when using cocaine), in addition to the detrimental health effects and the additional strain on the cardiovascular system caused by tobacco.
In addition to irritability, mood disturbances, restlessness, paranoia, and auditory hallucinations, crack can cause several dangerous physical conditions. It can lead to disturbances in heart rhythm and heart attacks, as well as chest pains or even respiratory failure. In addition, strokes, seizures and headaches are common in heavy users.
Cocaine can often cause reduced food intake, many chronic users lose their appetite and can experience severe malnourishment and significant weight loss.
The mixture of cocaine and alcohol is the most common two-drug combination that results in drug related death.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
=== Metabolism and excretion ===
Cocaine is extensively [[metabolism|metabolized]], primarily in the [[liver]], with only about 1% excreted unchanged in the urine. The metabolism is dominated by [[hydrolysis|hydrolytic]] [[ester]] cleavage, so the eliminated metabolites consist mostly of [[benzoylecgonine]], the major [[metabolite]], and in lesser amounts ecgonine methyl ester and ecgonine.
If taken with [[ethanol|alcohol]], cocaine combines with the ethanol in the [[liver]] to form [[cocaethylene]], which is both more [[euphoria|euphorigenic]] and has higher [[cardiovascular]] toxicity than cocaine by itself. It is precisely this characteristic that since the early 20th century has prompted heavily inebriated persons to snort cocaine to relieve them of the depressive effects of alcohol abuse.
Depending on liver and kidney function, cocaine metabolites are detectable in urine. Benzoylecgonine can be detected in urine within four hours after cocaine intake and remains detectable in concentrations greater than 150 ng/ml typically for up to eight days after cocaine is used. Detection of accumulation of cocaine metabolites in hair is possible in regular users until the sections of hair grown during use are cut or fall out.
=== Effects and health issues ===
==== Acute ====
Cocaine is a potent [[central nervous system]] [[stimulant]]. Its effects can last from 20 minutes to several hours, depending upon the dosage of cocaine taken, purity, and method of administration.
The initial signs of stimulation are hyperactivity, restlessness, increased [[blood pressure]], increased [[heart rate]] and [[euphoria]]. The euphoria is sometimes followed by feelings of discomfort and depression and a craving to experience the drug again. Sexual interest and pleasure can be amplified. Side effects can include twitching, [[paranoia]], and impotence, which usually increases with frequent usage.
With excessive dosage the drug can produce [[itch]]ing, [[tachycardia]], [[hallucination]]s, and [[formication|paranoid delusions]].
Overdose causes [[cardiac arrhythmia|tachyarrhythmias]] and a marked elevation of blood pressure. These can be life-threatening, especially if the user has existing cardiac problems.
The [[LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>]] of cocaine when administered to mice is 95.1 mg/kg.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Bedford JA, Turner CE, Elsohly HN|title=Comparative lethality of coca and cocaine|journal=Pharmacol Biochem Behav|volume=17|issue=5|year=1982|pages=1087–1088|curly=true}}</ref> Toxicity results in seizures, followed by respiratory and circulatory depression of medullar origin. This may lead to death from [[respiratory failure]], [[stroke]], [[cerebral hemorrhage]], or [[heart]]-failure. Cocaine is also highly pyrogenic, because the stimulation and increased muscular activity cause greater heat production. Heat loss is inhibited by the intense [[vasoconstriction]]. Cocaine-induced [[hyperthermia]] may cause muscle cell destruction and [[myoglobinuria]] resulting in [[renal failure]]. There is no specific [[antidote]] for cocaine overdose.
Cocaine's primary acute effect on brain chemistry is to raise the amount of dopamine and serotonin in the [[nucleus accumbens]] (the pleasure center in the brain); this effect ceases, due to metabolism of cocaine to inactive compounds and particularly due to the depletion of the transmitter resources ([[tachyphylaxis]]). This can be experienced acutely as feelings of depression, as a "crash" after the initial high. Further mechanisms occur in chronic cocaine use.
==== Chronic ====
Chronic cocaine intake causes brain cells to adapt functionally <!-- like muscles grow and degenerate --> to strong imbalances of transmitter levels in order to compensate extremes. Thus, receptors<!-- includes transporters --> disappear from the cell surface or reappear on it, resulting more or less in an "off" or "working mode" respectively, or they change their susceptibility for binding partners (ligands) – mechanisms called [[downregulation|down-]]/[[upregulation]]. Chronic cocaine use leads to a DAT upregulation{{verify source}}, further contributing to depressed mood states. Physical withdrawal is not dangerous, and is in fact restorative. The experience of insatiable hunger, aches, insomnia/oversleeping, lethargy, and persistent runny nose are often described as very unpleasant. Depression with suicidal ideation may develop in very heavy users. Finally, a loss of [[vesicular monoamine transporter]]s, neurofilament proteins, and other morphological changes appear to indicate a long term damage of dopamine neurons.
All these effects contribute a rise in tolerance thus requiring a larger dosage to achieve the same effect. The lack of normal amounts of serotonin and dopamine in the brain is the cause of the dysphoria and depression felt after the initial high. The diagnostic criteria for cocaine withdrawal is characterized by a dysphoric mood, fatigue, unpleasant dreams, insomnia or hypersomnia, E.D., increased appetite, psychomotor retardation or agitation, and anxiety.
Cocaine abuse also has multiple physical health consequences. It is associated with a lifetime risk of [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] that is seven times that of non-users. During the hour after cocaine is used, [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] risk rises 24-fold <ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |last=Vascia |first=Gabriella |authorlink= |coauthors=Christopher C. Tennant |year=2002 |month= |title=Cocaine use and cardiovascular complications|journal=MJA |volume=177 |issue=5 |pages=260-262 |id= |url=http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/177_05_020902/vas10632_fm.html |accessdate= }}</ref>
Side effects from chronic smoking of cocaine include chest pain, lung trauma, shortness of breath, sore throat, hoarse voice, [[dyspnea]], and an aching, [[flu]]-like syndrome. A common misconception is that the smoking of cocaine chemically breaks down [[tooth enamel]] and causes [[tooth decay]]. However, cocaine does often cause involuntary tooth grinding, known as [[bruxism]], which can deteriorate tooth enamel and lead to [[gingivitis]].<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |last=Baigent |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2003 |month= |title=Physical complications of substance abuse: what the pychiatrist needs to know |journal=Curr Opin Psychiatry |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=291-296 |id= |url= http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/452724_7|accessdate= }}</ref>
Chronic intranasal usage can degrade the [[cartilage]] separating the [[nostril]]s (the [[septum nasi]]), leading eventually to its complete disappearance. Due to the absorption of the cocaine from cocaine hydrochloride, the remaining hydrochloride forms a dilute hydrochloric acid.<ref name="pagliaros"/>
Cocaine may also greatly increase this risk of developing rare autoimmune or connective tissue diseases such as [[lupus]], [[Goodpasture's disease]], [[vasculitis]], [[glomerulonephritis]], [[Stevens-Johnson syndrome]] and other diseases.<ref>[http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/1999/A/199900322.html scienceblog.com]</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Trozak D, Gould W | title = Cocaine abuse and connective tissue disease. | journal = J Am Acad Dermatol | volume = 10 | issue = 3 | pages = 525 | year = 1984 | id = PMID 6725666}}</ref><ref>[http://content.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Aktion=ShowFulltext&ProduktNr=223854&Ausgabe=224772&ArtikelNr=45328 karger.com]</ref><ref>[http://jnnp.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/65/1/10 jnnp.bmjjournals.com]</ref> It can also cause a wide array of kidney diseases and renal failure.<ref>[http://cjasn.asnjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/1/4/655 cjasn.asnjournals.org]</ref><ref>[http://ndt.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/15/3/299 ndt.oxfordjournals.org]</ref> While these conditions are normally found in chronic use they can also be caused by short term exposure in susceptible individuals.
There have been published studies{{Fact|date=February 2007}} reporting that cocaine causes changes in the [[frontal lobe]] of the [[brain]]. The full extent of possible brain deterioration from cocaine use is not known.
=== Cocaine as a local anesthetic ===
Cocaine was historically useful as a topical anesthetic in eye and nasal surgery, although it is now predominantly used for nasal and [[lacrimal duct]] surgery. The major disadvantages of this use are cocaine's intense [[vasoconstrictor]] activity and potential for [[cardiovascular]] toxicity. Cocaine has since been largely replaced in Western medicine by synthetic local anaesthetics such as [[benzocaine]], [[proparacaine]], and [[tetracaine]] though it remains available for use if specified. If vasoconstriction is desired for a procedure (as it reduces bleeding), the anesthetic is combined with a vasoconstrictor such as [[phenylephrine]] or [[epinephrine]]. In [[Australia]] it is currently prescribed for use as a local anesthetic for conditions such as mouth and lung [[ulcers]]. Some Australian [[ENT]] specialists occasionally use cocaine within the practice when performing procedures such as nasal [[cauterization]]. In this scenario dissolved cocaine is soaked into a ball of cotton wool, which is placed in the nostril for the 10-15 minutes immediately prior to the procedure, thus performing the dual role of both numbing the area to be cauterized and also vasoconstriction. Even when used this way, some of the used cocaine may be absorbed through oral or nasal mucosa and give systemic effects.
==History==
*The cocaine [[alkaloid]] was first isolated by the [[Germany|German]] chemist [[Friedrich Gaedcke]] in [[1855]].
*In [[1859]] [[Albert Niemann]], a Ph.D. student at the [[University of Göttingen]] in [[Germany]] developed an improved purification process. He named the alkaloid “cocaine”.
*In [[1879]] cocaine began to be used to treat [[morphine]] [[addiction]]. Cocaine was introduced into clinical use as a [[local anaesthetic]] in [[Germany]] in [[1884]].
*In [[1884]] [[Sigmund Freud]] wrote the article ''Über Coca'', where he described the therapeutic uses of cocaine.[http://www.ispub.com/ostia/index.php?xmlFilePath=journals/ijn/vol3n1/freud.xml]
*In [[1885]] the U.S. manufacturer [[Parke-Davis]] sold cocaine in various forms, including cigarettes, powder, and even a cocaine mixture that could be injected directly into the user’s veins with the included needle. The company promised that its cocaine products would “supply the place of food, make the coward brave, the silent eloquent and ... render the sufferer insensitive to pain.”
*In [[1886]] [[Coca-Cola]] is invented and its original formula includes cocaine.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/cocaine.asp Snopes.com]</ref>
*Around [[1903]] cocaine is eliminated as a direct ingredient of [[Coca-Cola]].
*In [[1914]] the [[Harrison Narcotics Tax Act]] outlawed the use of cocaine in the [[United States]]. This law incorrectly referred to cocaine as a [[narcotic]], and the misclassification passed into popular culture. Cocaine is a [[stimulant]], not a [[narcotic]].
*In [[1961]] the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] was signed in [[New York]]. It banned the production and trade of cocaine, [[cannabis]] and [[opium]] and its derivatives. It went into effect in [[1964]].
*In [[1970]] the [[United States Congress]] passed the [[Controlled Substances Act]] which today still regulates the manufacture, importation, possession, and distribution of cocaine in the [[United States]].
*In the [[1970s]] cocaine regained popularity as a recreational drug and was glamorized in the U.S. popular media (for example, in songs like [[J.J. Cale]]'s [[Cocaine (song)|Cocaine]] and the movie [[Scarface]]), and by the [[disco music]] culture that emerged around [[discotheques]] like [[Studio 54]]. [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/drugs/buyers/socialhistory.html] The [[Medellín Cartel|Medellín]] and [[Cali Cartel]]s were founded in [[Colombia]] to meet the new demand for cocaine.
*In [[1985]] the [[crack epidemic]] began and lasted to about [[1990]].
*In [[Late 1993]] [[Pablo Escobar]], the founder of the [[Medellín Cartel]] is gunned down by [[Colombian National Police]]. The [[Cali Cartel]] becomes the number one cocaine trafficker.
*In [[1995]] the [[Cali Cartel]] is dismantled by [[Colombian National Police]], only to be replaced by the [[Norte del Valle Cartel]].
*Today, Cocaine in its various forms comes in second only to [[cannabis]] as the most popular illegal [[recreational drug]] in the [[United States]], and is number one in street value sold each year, exceeding $35 billion in [[2003]].{{cn}}
== Prohibition currently==
{{main|Legal status of cocaine}}
The production, distribution and sale of cocaine products is restricted (and illegal in most contexts) in most countries as regulated by the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]], and the [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]]. In the [[United States]] the manufacture, importation, possession, and distribution of cocaine is additionally regulated by the [[1970]] [[Controlled Substances Act]].
Some countries, such as [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] permit the cultivation of [[coca|coca leaf]] for traditional consumption by the local [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous population]], but nevertheless prohibit the production, sale and consumption of cocaine.
Some parts of [[Europe]] and [[Australia]] allow processed cocaine for medicinal uses only.
In certain countries in the [[Middle East]] and [[Asia]], such as [[Singapore]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Indonesia]], being in possession of cocaine can be punishable by death.<ref>[http://www.cocaineaddictiondrugrehab.com/crack-cocaine-laws.htm cocaineaddictiondrugrehab.com]</ref>
===Interdiction===
In 2004, according to the [[United Nations]], 589 [[metric ton]]s of cocaine were seized globally by law enforcement authorities. [[Colombia]] seized 188 tons, the [[United States]] 166 tons, [[Europe]] 79 tons, [[Peru]] 14 tons, Bolivia 9 tons, and the rest of the world 133 [[tons]]. [http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap4_cocaine.pdf]
== Illicit trade ==
[[Image:Cocaine_bricks_scorpion_logo.jpg|right|thumb|Bricks of cocaine, a form in which it is commonly transported.]]
Because of the extensive processing it undergoes during preparation, cocaine is generally treated as a '[[Hard_and_soft_drugs|hard drug]]', with severe penalties for possession and trafficking. Demand remains high, and consequently black market cocaine is quite expensive. Unprocessed cocaine, such as [[coca leaves]], is occasionally bought and sold, but this is exceedingly rare as it is much easier and more profitable to conceal and smuggle it in powdered form.
=== Production ===
By [[1999]], [[Colombia]] had become the world's leading producer of cocaine. Three-quarters of the world's annual yield of cocaine was produced there, both from cocaine base imported from [[Peru]] (primarily the [[Huallaga Valley]]) and [[Bolivia]], and from locally grown [[coca]]. There was a 28 percent increase from the amount of potentially harvestable [[coca]] plants which were grown in [[Colombia]] in [[1998]]. This, combined with crop reductions in [[Bolivia]] and [[Peru]], made [[Colombia]] the nation with the largest area of coca under cultivation after the mid-1990s. Coca grown for traditional purposes by indigenous communities, a use which is still present and is permitted by Colombian laws, only makes up a small fragment of total coca production, most of which is used for the illegal drug trade. Attempts to eradicate coca fields through the use of defoliants have devastated part of the farming economy in some coca growing regions of Colombia, and strains appear to have been developed that are more resistant or immune to their use. Whether these strains are natural mutations or the product of human tampering is unclear. These strains have also shown to be more potent than those previously grown, increasing profits for the drug cartels responsible for the exporting of cocaine. The cultivation of coca has become an attractive, and in some cases even necessary, economic decision on the part of many growers due to the combination of several factors, including the persistence of worldwide demand, the lack of other employment alternatives, the lower profitability of alternative crops in official crop substitution programs, the eradication-related damages to non-drug farms, and the spread of new strains of the coca plant.
<table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto">
<caption>Estimated Andean Region Coca Cultivation and Potential Pure Cocaine Production, 2000–2004.<ref>{{cite paper | author=[[NDIC]] | title=National Drug Threat Assessment 2006 | date=2006 | url=http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs11/18862/index.htm }}</ref><caption>
<tr><th></th><th>2000</th><th>2001</th><th>2002</th><th>2003</th><th>2004</th></tr>
<tr><td>Net Cultivation ([[1 E9 m²|km²]])</td><td>1875</td><td>2218</td><td>2007.5</td><td>1663</td><td>1662</td></tr>
<tr><td>Potential Pure Cocaine Production ([[tonne]]s)</td><td>770</td><td>925</td><td>830</td><td>680</td><td>645</td></tr></table>
=== Trafficking and distribution ===
[[Organized crime|Organized criminal]] gangs operating on a large scale dominate the cocaine trade. Most cocaine is grown and processed in [[South America]], particularly in [[Colombia]] and [[Peru]], and smuggled into the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], where it is sold at huge markups; usually in the US at $100 for 3.5 grams (slang: 8 ball).
Cocaine shipments from [[South America]] transported through [[Mexico]] or [[Central America]] are generally moved over land or by air to staging sites in northern Mexico. The cocaine is then broken down into smaller loads for smuggling across the [[US-Mexico border|U.S.–Mexico border]]. The primary cocaine importation points in the [[United States]] are in [[Arizona]], southern [[California]], southern [[Florida]], and [[Texas]]. Typically, land vehicles are driven across the U.S.-Mexico border. Sixty Five percent of cocaine enters the United States through Mexico, and the vast majority of the rest enters through Florida.<ref>Jacobson, Robert. "Illegal Drugs: America's Anguish". Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale, 2006</ref>
Cocaine is also carried in small, concealed, kilogram quantities across the border by couriers known as “[[Mule (smuggling)|mules]]” (or “burros”), who cross a border either legally, e.g. through a port or airport, or illegally through undesignated points along the border. The drugs may be strapped to the waist or legs or hidden in bags, or hidden in the body. If the mule gets through without being caught, the gangs will reap most of the profits. If he or she is caught however, gangs will sever all links and the mule will usually stand trial for trafficking by him/herself.
Cocaine traffickers from [[Colombia]], and recently [[Mexico]], have also established a labyrinth of [[smuggling]] routes throughout the [[Caribbean]], the [[Bahama]] Island chain, and South [[Florida]]. They often hire traffickers from [[Mexico]] or the [[Dominican Republic]] to transport the drug. The traffickers use a variety of smuggling techniques to transfer their drug to U.S. markets. These include airdrops of 500–700 kg in the [[Bahama Islands]] or off the coast of [[Puerto Rico]], mid-ocean boat-to-boat transfers of 500–2,000 kg, and the commercial shipment of tonnes of cocaine through the port of [[Miami]].
Bulk cargo ships are also used to smuggle cocaine to staging sites in the western [[Caribbean]]–[[Gulf of Mexico]] area. These vessels are typically 150–250 foot (50–80 m) coastal freighters that carry an average cocaine load of approximately 2.5 tonnes. Commercial fishing vessels are also used for smuggling operations. In areas with a high volume of recreational traffic, smugglers use the same types of vessels, such as [[go-fast boat]]s, as those used by the local populations.
==== "Black cocaine" ====
Traffickers have also started using a method whereby a substance such as [[iron thiocyanate]],<ref name="pagliaros"/> a mixture of [[cobalt]] and [[ferric chloride]],<ref>{{cite paper | author=[[Australian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence]] | title=Australian Illicit Drug Report 1998–99 | date=1999 | url=http://www.crimecommission.gov.au/content/publications/aidr_2000/05_Cocaine.pdf |curly=true}}</ref> or a mixture of [[charcoal]] and [[iron filings]] <ref name="stevemacko">{{cite news | first=Steve | last=Macko | title=Colombia's new breed of drug trafficker | date=Friday, July 17, 1998 | publisher=Emergency Response and Research Institute, Chicago | url=http://www.emergency.com/clmbdeal.htm }}</ref> is added to cocaine hydrochloride to produce “black cocaine.” The cocaine in this substance is not detected by standard chemical tests such as the [[Becton Dickinson test]] kit. The substance was first identified after a seizure in March 1998 in Germany, which was then tracked back to discover 250 lb of black cocaine ready for transport at [[Bogotá]]’s airport. <ref name="stevemacko"/>
==== Availability ====
Cocaine is readily available in all major countries' metropolitan areas. According to the ''Summer 1998 Pulse Check,'' published by the U.S. [[Office of National Drug Control Policy]], cocaine use had stabilized across the country, with a few increases reported in [[San Diego]], [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]], [[Miami, Florida|Miami]], and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. In the West, cocaine usage was lower, which was thought to be because some users were switching to [[methamphetamine]], which was cheaper and provides a longer-lasting high. Numbers of cocaine users are still very large, with a concentration among city-dwelling youth.
Cocaine is typically sold to users by the gram ($50-$120US) or eight ball (3.5 grams, or roughly 1/8th oz; hence the term "eight ball") ($100-$300). Quality and price can vary dramatically depending on demand and supply.
===Consumption===
<font size = green size = 4>Usually about 5 lines a day shouldn't cause to much harm.
<font size = 2 color = black>World annual cocaine consumption currently stands at around 600 [[metric ton]]s, with the [[United States]] consuming around 300 metric tons, 50% of the total, Europe about 150 metric tons, 25% of the total, and the rest of the world the remaining 150 metric tons or 25%. [http://www.dod.mil/policy/sections/policy_offices/solic/cn/cocaine2.pdf]
According to the [[United Nations]] [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|Office on Drugs and Crime]] 2006 World Drug Report, the [[United States]] has the world's greatest rate of cocaine consumption by people aged 15 to 64, 2.8%. It is closely followed by [[Spain]] with 2.7%, and England & Wales with 2.4%. Most [[Western European]] countries have a consumption rate between 1% and 2%. [http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_volume2.pdf]
== Usage ==
{{worldwide}}
=== In the United States ===
==== General usage ====
<font color = red size = 4>Its pretty good for you.
<gallery>
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Cocaine has become the second most popular illegal recreational drug in the U.S.<ref>[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/cocaine/cocaine.shtml erowid.org]</ref> Cocaine is commonly used in middle to upper class communities. It is also popular amongst college students, not just to aid in studying, but also as a party drug. Its users span over different ages, races, and professions. In the 1970s and 80's the drug became particularly popular in the [[disco]] culture as cocaine usage was very common and popular in many discos such as [[Studio 54]].
The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) reported in [[1999]] that cocaine was used by 3.7 million Americans, or 1.7 percent of the household population age 12 and older. Estimates of the current number of those who use cocaine regularly (at least once per month) vary, but 1.5 million is a widely accepted figure within the research community.
Although cocaine use had not significantly changed over the six years prior to 1999, the number of first-time users went up from 574,000 in 1991, to 934,000 in 1998 — an increase of 63%. While these numbers indicated that cocaine is still widely present in the United States, cocaine use was significantly less prevalent than it was during the early 1980s. Cocaine use peaked in [[1982]] when 10.4 million Americans (5.6 percent of the population) reportedly used the drug{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
==== Usage among youth ====
The [[1999]] [[Monitoring the future|Monitoring the Future]] (MTF) survey found the proportion of American students reporting use of powder cocaine rose during the 1990s. In [[1991]], 2.3 percent of eighth-graders stated that they had used cocaine in their lifetime. This figure rose to 4.7 percent in 1999. For the older grades, increases began in 1992 and continued through the beginning of 1999. Between those years, lifetime use of cocaine went from 3.3 percent to 7.7 percent for tenth-graders and from 6.1 percent to 9.8 percent for twelfth-graders. Lifetime use of crack cocaine, according to MTF, also increased among eighth-, tenth-, and twelfth-graders, from an average of 2 percent in 1991 to 3.9 percent in 1999.
Perceived risk and disapproval of cocaine and crack use both decreased during the 1990s at all three grade levels. The 1999 NHSDA found the highest rate of monthly cocaine use was for those aged 18–25 at 1.7 percent, an increase from 1.2 percent in 1997. Rates declined between 1996 and 1998 for ages 26–34, while rates slightly increased for the 12–17 and 35+ age groups. Studies also show people are experimenting with cocaine at younger ages. NHSDA found a steady decline in the mean age of first use from 23.6 years in 1992 to 20.6 years in 1998.
== Addiction ==
{{Expert-subject|Medicine}}
'''Cocaine addiction''' is the excessive intake of cocaine, and can result in physiological damage, lethargy, depression, or a potentially fatal overdose. The immediate craving to use more cocaine is strong and very common, because euphoric effects usually subside in most users within an hour of the last dosage, leading to serial cocaine readministrations, and prolonged, multi-dose binge use in those who are addicted. When administration stops after binge use, it is followed by a "crash" (also known as a "come down"), the onset of severely dysphoric mood with escalating exhaustion until sleep is achieved, which is sometimes accomplished by taking sleeping medications, or [[sedative]]s, a popular one being [[Quetiapine|Seroquel]]. Resumption of use may occur upon awakening or may not occur for several days, but the intense euphoria of such use can, as it has in many users, produce intense craving and develop rather quickly into addiction. The risk<ref>{{cite journal|author=O'Brien MS, Anthony JC|title=Risk of becoming cocaine dependent: epidemiological estimates for the United States, 2000-2001.|url=http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v30/n5/full/1300681a.html|year=2005|PMID=15785780|journal=Neuropsychopharmacology|volume=30|pages=1006–1018|curly=true}}</ref> of becoming cocaine-dependent within 2 years of first use(recent-onset) is 5-6%; after 10 years, it's 15-16%. These are the aggregate rates for all types of use considered, i.e., smoking, snorting, injecting. Among recent-onset users, the ''relative'' rates are higher for smoking (3.4 times) and much higher for injecting (31 times). They also vary, based on other characteristics, such as gender: among recent-onset users, females are 3.3 times more likely to become addicted, compared to males; age: among recent-onset users, those who started using at ages 12 or 13 were 4 times as likely to become addicted, compared to those who started between ages 18 and 20; and race: among recent-onset users, non-Hispanic Blacks are 7 times as likely to become addicted, compared to non-Hispanic Whites. Many habitual abusers develop a transient manic-like condition similar to [[amphetamine psychosis]] and [[schizophrenia]], whose symptoms include aggression, severe paranoia, and tactile hallucinations (including the feeling of insects under the skin, or "coke bugs") during binges.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Gawin. FH. | title=Cocaine addiction: Psychology and neurophysiology | journal=[[Science]] | year= 1991 | volume=251|pages=1580–1586 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=2011738&query_hl=18 |curly=true}}</ref>
Cocaine has positive reinforcement effects, which refers to the effect that certain stimuli have on behavior. Good feelings become associated with the drug, causing a frequent user to take the drug as a response to bad news or mild [[depression (mood)|depression]]. This activation strengthens the response that was just made. If the drug was taken by a fast acting route such as injection or inhalation, the response will be the act of taking more cocaine, so the response will be reinforced. Powder cocaine, being a [[club drug]] is mostly consumed in the evening and night hours. Because cocaine is a [[stimulant]], a user will often drink large amounts of [[alcohol]] during and after usage or smoke [[cannabis]] to dull "crash" or "come down" effects and hasten slumber. [[Benzodiazepines]] (e.g., xanax<sup>®</sup>, rohypnol<sup>®</sup>) are also used for this purpose. Other drugs such as [[heroin]] and various pharmaceuticals are often used to amplify reinforcement or to minimize such negative effects, further increasing addiction potential and harmfulness.
It has been shown in studies that [[rhesus monkeys]] provided with a mechanism of cocaine self-administration prefer the drug over food that is in the cage. This happens even when the monkeys are starving.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Aigner TG, Balster RL|title=Choice behavior in rhesus monkeys: cocaine versus food|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/201/4355/534|volume=Science 201|pages=534-535|curly=true}}</ref>
It is speculated that cocaine's addictive properties stem partially from its [[DAT]]-blocking effects (in particular, increasing the dopaminergic transmission from [[ventral tegmental area]] neurons). However, a study has shown that mice with no dopamine transporters still exhibit the rewarding effects of cocaine administration.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Sora, ''et al.'' | title=Cocaine reward models: Conditioned place preference can be established in dopamine- and in serotonin-transporter knockout mice | journal=[[PNAS]] | year=June 23, 1998 | volume=95|issue=13 |pages=7600–7704 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/13/7699 |curly=true}}</ref> Later work demonstrated that a combined DAT/SERT knockout eliminated the rewarding effects.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Sora, ''et al.'' | title=Molecular mechanisms of cocaine reward: Combined dopamine and serotonin transporter knockouts eliminate cocaine place preference | journal=[[PNAS]] | year=April 24, 2001 | volume=98|issue=9 |pages=5300–5305 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/9/5300 |curly=true}}</ref> The rewarding effects of cocaine are influenced by [[circadian rhythms]],<ref>{{cite journal | author=Kurtuncu ''et al.'' | title=Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice | journal=European Journal of Pharmacology | year=April 12, 2004 | volume=489|issue=3 |pages=203–205 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=23 |curly=true}}</ref> possibly by involving a set of genes termed "clock genes".<ref>{{cite journal | author=Yuferov ''et al.'' | title=Biological clock: biological clocks may modulate drug addiction | journal=European Journal of Human Genetics | year=October 2005 | volume=13|issue=10 |pages=1101–1103 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16094306&query_hl=18 |curly=true}}</ref> However, chronic cocaine addiction is not solely due to cocaine reward. Chronic repeated use is needed to produce cocaine-induced changes in brain reward centers and consequent chronic dysphoria (described above under "Effects and Health Issues - Chronic"). Dysphoria magnifies craving for cocaine because cocaine reward rapidly, albeit transiently, improves mood. This contributes to continued use and a self-perpetuating, worsening condition, since those addicted usually cannot appreciate that long-term effects are opposite those occurring immediately after use.
=== Treatment ===
[[Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT) shows promising results. One or more [[cocaine vaccine]]s exist or are on trial that will stop desirable effects from the drug. The National Institutes of Health of an unspecified country is researching [[modafinil]], a narcolepsy drug and mild stimulant, as a potential cocaine treatment. [[Twelve-step program]]s such as [[Cocaine Anonymous]] (modeled on [[Alcoholics Anonymous]]) are claimed by many cocaine addicts to be helpful in achieving long-term abstinence. These spiritual programs have no statistically-measurable effect as Alcoholics Anonymous does not release any quantifiable measure of its success rates. There are, however, many recovering addicts who claim this program has aided them.
==== GVG ====
[[Image:Dopamine_monkey.png|300px|right|thumb|[[Positron Emission Tomography]] scans showing the average level of dopamine receptors in six primates' brains. Red is high- and blue is low-concentration of dopamine receptors. The higher the level of dopamine, the fewer receptors there will be.]]
Studies have shown that [[gamma vinyl-gamma-aminobutyric acid]] (gamma vinyl-GABA, or GVG), a drug normally used to treat [[epilepsy]], blocks cocaine's action in the [[brain]]s of [[primate]]s. GVG increases the amount of the neurotransmitter [[gamma-aminobutyric acid|GABA]] in the brain and reduces the level of [[dopamine]] in the region of the brain that is thought to be involved in addiction. In January [[2005]] the [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] gave permission for a Phase I [[clinical trial]] of GVG for the treatment of addiction. Another drug currently tested for anti-addictive properties is the cannabinoid antagonist [[rimonabant]].
==== GBR 12909 ====
GBR 12909 ([[Vanoxerine]]) is a [[dopamine reuptake inhibitor|selective dopamine uptake inhibitor]]. Because of this, it reduces cocaine's effect on the brain, and may help to treat cocaine addiction. Studies have shown that GBR, when given to primates, suppresses cocaine self-administration.
==== Venlafaxine ====
[[Venlafaxine]] ([[Effexor<sup>®</sup>]]), although not a dopamine re-uptake inhibitor, is a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor that has been successfully used to combat the depression caused by cocaine withdrawal and to a lesser extent, the addiction associated with the drug itself. Venlafaxine has been shown to have significant withdrawal problems itself, and can lead to lifetime use due to these withdrawal effects. A statistically significant number of people prescribed Effexor<sup>®</sup> have committed suicide (2 attempts per 1000 patients, vs 1.56 suicides per 1,000 untreated depressives) (Reference needed)
== References ==
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>
== See also ==
* [[Benzocaine]]
* [[Coca]]
* [[Coca eradication]]
* [[Crack baby]]
* [[Crack Epidemic]]
* [[Cuscohygrine]]
* [[Drug addiction]]
* [[Drug injection]]
* [[Drugs and prostitution]]
* [[Ecgonine benzoate]]
* [[Hydroxytropacocaine]]
* [[Hygrine]]
* [[Methylecgonine cinnamate]]
* [[Procaine|Novocaine]]
* [[Psychoactive drug]]
* [[(-)-2-ß-Carbomethoxy-3-ß-(4-fluorophenyl)tropane naphthalenedisulfonate]] (CFT, WIN-35,428)
== Further reading ==
* ''[[Special:Booksources/0312422261|Cocaine: an unauthorized biography]]'' by [[Dominic Streatfeild]]
* ''[http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library/data/lit29488 Über Coca]'' by [[Sigmund Freud]]
* ''History of Coca. The Divine Plant of the Incas" by W. Golden Mortimer, M.D. 576 pp. And/Or Press San Francisco, 1974. No ISBN.
* ''The Triumph of Surgery'' by [[Jürgen Thorwald]] - Ch. 6 - The second battle against Pain (The early use of cocaine solution in eye surgery)
* ''[[Snowblind]]'' by [[Robert Sabbag]], Cannongate Books ISBN 1-84195-225-7
* ''The Man Who Made It Snow'' by Max Mermelstein. ISBN 0-671-70312-9
* Celerino III Castillo & Dave Harmon (1994). ''Powderburns: Cocaine, Contras & the Drug War'', Sundial. ISBN 0-88962-578-6 (paperback) ISBN 0-8095-4855-0 (hardcover; Borgo Pr; 3rd ed.; 1995).
* Alexander Cockburn & Jeffrey St. Clair (1999). ''Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press'', Verso. ISBN 1-85984-139-2 (cloth), ISBN 1-85984-258-5 (paperback). Cites 116 books.
* Frederick P. Hitz (1999). ''Obscuring Propriety: The CIA and Drugs, International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence'', 12(4): 448-462 DOI:10.1080/088506099304990
* Robert Parry (1999). ''Lost History: Contras, Cocaine, the Press & “[[Project Truth]]”'', Media Consortium. ISBN 1-893517-00-4.
* [[Richard Smart]] (Hard Cover 1985). ''[[The Snow Papers]]'' The Atlantic Monthly Press ISBN 0-87113-030-0
* Peter Dale Scott & Jonathan Marshall (1991). ''Cocaine Politics: Drugs, Armies, and the CIA in Central America'', University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21449-8 (paperback, 1998 reprint), ISBN 0-520-07312-6 (hardcover, 1991), ISBN 0-520-07781-4 (paperback, 1992 reprint).
* [[Gary Webb]](1998). ''Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion'', Seven Stories Press. ISBN 1-888363-68-1 (hardcover, 1998), ISBN 1-888363-93-2 (paperback, 1999).
* [[Philippe Bourgois]] ''In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio''. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2003. Second Updated Edition.
* [[Otto Snow]] ''THC & Tropacocaine'' ISBN 0-9663128-5-6 (paperback 2004)
* [[David Lee]] ''Cocaine Handbook'' ISBN 0-915904-56-X (paperback 1981)
* [[Adam Gottlieb]] ''Cocaine Tester's Handbook'' ASIN B0007C137A (paperback 1975)
* [[Adam Gottlieb]] ''Pleasures of Cocaine: If You Enjoy: This Book May Save Your Life'' ISBN 0-914171-81-X (paperback 1996)
* [[Carol Saline]] ''Doctor Snow: How the FBI Nailed a Ivy League Coke King'' ISBN 0-453-00593-4 (HardCover 1986)
* [[Mark Bowden]] ''Doctor Dealer: The Rise & Fall Of An All American Boy and his Multi-Million Dollar Cocaine Empire'' ISBN 0-446-51382-2 (HardCover 1987)
Smoke Crack Like Thissss.................... Find the nigga with the whitest snow, dont buy from a nigga you dont know.
== External links ==
{{external links}}
* [http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20061017193046AACTYnB When was cocaine first developed?] a history of cocaine.
* [http://www.ca.org/literature/selftest.htm Self-test] — from Cocaine Addicts Anonymous
* [http://www.CocaineHelp.org Cocaine User Helping Hand] — Internet Portal dedicated to help crack- and cocaine-addicted people. Contains wide variety of information on drug abuse, available treatment, and recovery issues.
* [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/cocaine/cocaine.shtml Erowid -> Cocaine Information] — A collection of data about cocaine including dose, effects, chemistry, legal status, images and more.
* [http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/cocaine.asp Urban Legends Reference Pages: Cokelore (Cocaine-Cola)] —
about cocaine in Coke
* [http://www.pdxnorml.org/NYT_addictive_080294.html Addictive properties]
* [http://www.sharedresponsibility.gov.co/ Shared Responsibility] — Information about European cocaine use and drug trafficking in Colombia.
* [http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/chemdisp.xsql?chemical=COCAINE Cocaine content of plants]
* [http://www.cocaine.org Cocaine.org] — Information guide on Cocaine and its history, use/abuse, etc.
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A10832384 Cocaine - The History and the Risks at h2g2]
* [http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/en/Neuroscience_E.pdf Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence] by the [[WHO]] – [http://www.greenfacts.org/en/psychoactive-drugs/index.htm Summary] by [[GreenFacts]]
{{Wiktionary}}
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*[http://www.washingtonmd.org Committee for the Capital City (pro-retrocession)]
[[Category:Addiction]]
*[http://www.dcvote.org/pdfs/mdrretro062004.pdf The Debates over the Retrocession of the District of Columbia, 1801–2004]
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[[Category:Benzoates]]
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[[Category:Class A drugs]]
[[Category:Cocaine|*]]
[[Category:Dopamine reuptake inhibitors]]
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[[Category:Stimulants]]
[[Category:Sympathomimetic amines]]
[[Category:History of the District of Columbia|Retrocession]]
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