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{{Short description|Set of rules defining correctly structured programs}}
{{Update|date=November 2020|reason=New features/versions now in JavaScript}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2025}}
[[File:Source code in Javascript.png|thumb|A snippet of [[JavaScript]] code with keywords [[Syntax highlighting|highlighted]] in different colors]]
The '''[[Syntax (programming languages)|syntax]] of [[JavaScript]]''' is the set of rules that define a correctly structured JavaScript program.
The examples below make use of the <code>console.log()</code> function
The JavaScript [[standard library]] lacks an official standard text output function (with the exception of <code>document.write</code>). Given that JavaScript is mainly used for [[client-side scripting]] within modern [[
==Origins==
[[Brendan Eich]] summarized the ancestry of the syntax in the first paragraph of the JavaScript 1.1 specification<ref>
{{
==Basics==
===Case sensitivity===
JavaScript is [[Case sensitivity|case sensitive]]. It is common to start the name of a [[
Example:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
var a = 5;
console.log(a); // 5
console.log(A); // throws a ReferenceError: A is not defined
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===Whitespace and semicolons===
|title=JavaScript: The definitive Guide
|url=https://archive.org/details/javascript00libg_297
Line 34 ⟶ 39:
|quote=Omitting semicolons is not a good programming practice; you should get into the habit of inserting them.
|isbn=978-0-596-10199-2
|year=2006
}}</ref>
There are two issues: five tokens can either begin a statement or be the extension of a complete statement; and five restricted productions, where line breaks are not allowed in certain positions, potentially yielding incorrect parsing.
The five problematic tokens are the open parenthesis "<
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
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with the suggestion that the preceding statement be terminated with a semicolon.
Some suggest instead the use of ''leading'' semicolons on lines starting with '<
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
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Initial semicolons are also sometimes used at the start of JavaScript libraries, in case they are appended to another library that omits a trailing semicolon, as this can result in ambiguity of the initial statement.
The five restricted productions are <
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
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===Comments===
[[Comment (computer programming)|Comment]] syntax is the same as in [[C++]],
Single-line comments begin with <code>//</code> and continue until the end of the line. A second type of comments can also be made; these start with <code>/*</code> and end with <code>*/</code> and can be used for multi-line comments.
A third type of comment, the hashbang comment, starts with <code>#!</code> and continues until the end of the line. They are only valid at the start of files and are intended for use in [[command-line interface|CLI]] environments.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Farias |first1=Bradley |title=Hashbang Grammar |url=https://github.com/tc39/proposal-hashbang |website=GitHub |access-date=13 July 2025}}</ref>
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
/
/* Multi-line
comment */
</syntaxhighlight>
==Variables==
{{Main|Variable (programming)}}
[[Variable (programming)|Variable]]s in standard JavaScript have no [[Type system|type]] attached, so any value (each ''value'' has a type) can be stored in any variable. Starting with [[ECMAScript#6th Edition – ECMAScript 2015|ES6]], the 6th version of the language, variables could be declared with <code>var</code> for function scoped variables, and <code>let</code> or <code>const</code> which are for [[block scope|block level]] variables. Before ES6, variables could only be declared with a <code>var</code> statement. Values assigned to variables declared with <code>const</code> cannot be changed, but their properties can. <code>var</code> should no longer be used since <code>let</code> and <code>const</code> are supported by modern browsers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 May 2023 |title=Storing the information you need — Variables - Learn web development {{!}} MDN |url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/First_steps/Variables |access-date=23 June 2023 |website=developer.mozilla.org |language=en-US}}</ref> A variable's [[Identifier (computer languages)|identifier]] must start with a letter, underscore (<code>_</code>), or dollar sign (<code>$</code>), while subsequent characters can also be digits (<code>0-9</code>). JavaScript is case sensitive, so the uppercase characters "A" through "Z" are different from the lowercase characters "a" through "z".
Starting with JavaScript 1.5, [[ISO 8859-1]] or [[Unicode]] letters (or <
===Scoping and hoisting===
Variables declared with <code>var</code> are [[lexical scoping|lexically scoped]] at a [[function scope|function level]],
Function
So, for example,
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
var func = function() { .. } //
function func() { .. } //
</syntaxhighlight>
Block scoping can be produced by wrapping the entire block in a function and then executing it – this is known as the [[immediately-invoked function expression]] pattern – or by declaring the variable using the <code>let</code> keyword. <!-- Two totally slightly different things, wrapping cope in a block executes the whole code in a block, while let-or-const variables can be seen in the same block. So block-scope code, where code is executed, block-scope variables, where variables can be accessed. -->
===Declaration and assignment===
Variables declared outside
When JavaScript tries to '''resolve''' an identifier, it looks in the local
When '''assigning''' an identifier, JavaScript goes through exactly the same process to retrieve this identifier, except that if it is not found in the ''global scope'', it will create the "variable"
Note that JavaScript's ''strict mode'' forbids the assignment of an undeclared variable, which avoids global namespace pollution.
=== Examples ===
Here are some examples of variable declarations and scope:
<!-- Maybe in this example, function f should also have a local shadowing variable name x2 -->
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
var
let x2 = 0; // Also global, this time because it is not in any block
function f() {
var z = 'foxes', r = 'birds'; // 2 local variables
m = 'fish'; // global, because it
function child() {
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child();
return
}
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<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
for (let i = 0; i < 10; i++) console.log(i);
console.log(i); // throws a ReferenceError: i is not defined
</syntaxhighlight>
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
for (const i = 0; i < 10; i++) console.log(i); // throws a TypeError: Assignment to constant variable
for (const i of [1,2,3]) console.log(i); //will not raise an exception. i is not reassigned but recreated in every iteration
const pi; // throws a SyntaxError: Missing initializer in const declaration
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==Primitive data types==
{{Main|Primitive data type}}
The JavaScript language provides six [[primitive data type]]s:
* Undefined
* Number
* BigInt
* String
* Boolean
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===Undefined===
{{Main|Undefined value}}
The [[undefined value|value of "undefined"]] is assigned to all [[uninitialized variable]]s, and is also returned when checking for object properties that do not exist. In a Boolean context, the undefined value is considered a false value.
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<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
// ... set to value of undefined
console.log(test); // test variable exists, but value not ...
// ... defined, displays undefined
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</syntaxhighlight>
Note: There is no built-in language literal for undefined. Thus {{code|lang=javascript|code=(x === undefined)}} is not a foolproof way to check whether a variable is undefined, because in versions before ECMAScript 5, it is legal for someone to write {{code|lang=javascript|code=var undefined = "I'm defined now";}}. A more robust approach is to compare using {{code|lang=javascript|code=(typeof x === 'undefined')}}.
Functions like this
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
function isUndefined(x) {
function isUndefined(x) { return x === void 0; } // ... or that second one
function isUndefined(x) { return (typeof x) === "undefined"; } // ... or that third one
</syntaxhighlight>
Here, calling <code>isUndefined(my_var)</code> raises a {{mono|ReferenceError}} if {{mono|my_var}} is an unknown identifier, whereas {{code|lang=javascript|code=typeof my_var === 'undefined'}}
===Number===
Numbers are represented in binary as [[IEEE
This becomes an issue when comparing or formatting numbers. For example:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
console.log(0.2 + 0.1 === 0.3); // displays
console.log(0.94 - 0.01); // displays 0.9299999999999999
</syntaxhighlight>
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0xFF; // a hexadecimal integer equal to 255, digits represented by the ...
// ... letters A-F may be upper or lowercase
</syntaxhighlight>
There is also a numeric separator, {{mono|_}} (the underscore), introduced in ES2021:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
// Note: Wikipedia syntax does not support numeric separators yet
1_000_000_000; // Used with big numbers
1_000_000.5; // Support with decimals
1_000e1_000; // Support with exponents
// Support with binary, octals and hex
0b0000_0000_0101_1011;
0o0001_3520_0237_1327;
0xFFFF_FFFF_FFFF_FFFE;
// But users cannot use them next to a non-digit number part, or at the start or end
_12; // Variable is not defined (the underscore makes it a variable identifier)
12_; // Syntax error (cannot be at the end of numbers)
12_.0; // Syntax error (does not make sense to put a separator next to the decimal point)
12._0; // Syntax error
12e_6; // Syntax error (next to "e", a non-digit. Does not make sense to put a separator at the start)
1000____0000; // Syntax error (next to "_", a non-digit. Only 1 separator at a time is allowed
</syntaxhighlight>
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These three special values correspond and behave as the [[IEEE-754]] describes them.
The Number constructor (used as a function), or a unary + or -, may be used to perform explicit numeric conversion:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
</syntaxhighlight>
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<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
const myNumericWrapper = new Number(123.456);
</syntaxhighlight>
However, NaN is not equal to itself:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
const nan = NaN;
console.log(NaN == NaN); // false console.log(NaN === NaN); // false
console.log
console.log(nan !== nan); // true
// Users can use the isNaN methods to check for NaN
console.log(isNaN("converted to NaN")); // true
console.log(isNaN(NaN)); // true
console.log(Number.isNaN("not converted")); // false
console.log(Number.isNaN(NaN)); // true
</syntaxhighlight>
===BigInt===
In JavaScript, regular numbers are represented with the IEEE 754 floating point type, meaning integers can only safely be stored if the value falls between <code>Number.MIN_SAFE_INTEGER</code> and <code>Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER</code>. <ref>{{cite web |title=Number - JavaScript | url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Number |website=MDN Web Docs |access-date=13 July 2025}}</ref> BigInts instead represent [[integers]] of any size, allowing programmers to store integers too high or low to be represented with the IEEE 754 format.<ref name="bigint-mdn">{{cite web |title=BigInt - Javascript |url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/BigInt |website=MDN Web Docs |access-date=13 July 2025}}</ref>
There are two ways to declare a BigInt value. An <code>n</code> can be appended to an integer, or the <code>BigInt</code> function can be used:<ref name="bigint-mdn" />
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
const a = 12345n; // Creates a variable and stores a BigInt value of 12345
const b = BigInt(12345);
</syntaxhighlight>
=== String ===
A [[String (computer science)|string]] in JavaScript is a sequence of characters. In JavaScript, strings can be created directly (as literals) by placing the series of characters between double (<code>"</code>) or single (<code>'</code>) quotes. Such strings must be written on a single line, but may include escaped newline characters (such as <code>\n</code>). The JavaScript standard allows the [[Grave accent#Use in programming|backquote]] character (<code>`</code>, a.k.a. grave accent or backtick) to quote multiline literal strings,
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
const aMultilineGreeting = `Warm regards,
John Doe.`
// Template literals type-coerce evaluated expressions and interpolate them into the string.
const templateLiteral = `This is what is stored in anotherGreeting: ${anotherGreeting}.`;
console.log(templateLiteral); // 'This is what is stored in anotherGreeting: 'Greetings, people of Earth.''
console.log(`You are ${Math.floor(age)=>18 ? "allowed" : "not allowed"} to view this web page`);
</syntaxhighlight>
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<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
</syntaxhighlight>
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<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 303 ⟶ 351:
</syntaxhighlight>
Applying the <!-- loose -->equality operator ("==") to two strings returns true, if the strings have the same contents, which means: of the same length and containing the same sequence of characters (case is significant for alphabets). Thus:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
// ... false since the ...
// ... first characters ...
// ... of both operands ...
// ... are not of the same case.
</syntaxhighlight>
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<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
</syntaxhighlight>
The {{mono|String}} constructor creates a string object (an object wrapping a string):
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
</syntaxhighlight>
These objects have a {{mono|valueOf}} method returning the primitive string wrapped within them<!-- also works with regular strings -->:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
typeof s; // Is 'object'.
typeof s.valueOf(); // Is 'string'.
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<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
s1 == s2; // Is false, because they are two distinct objects.
s1.valueOf() == s2.valueOf(); // Is true.
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===Boolean===
[[JavaScript]] provides a [[Boolean data type]] with {{mono|true}} and {{mono|false}} literals. The {{mono|[[typeof]]}} operator returns the string {{mono|"boolean"}} for these [[primitive types]]. When used in a logical context, {{mono|0}}, {{mono|-0}}, {{mono|null}}, {{mono|NaN}}, {{mono|undefined}}, and the empty string ({{mono|""}}) evaluate as {{mono|false}} due to automatic [[type
=== Type conversion ===
Automatic type coercion by the equality comparison operators (<code>==</code> and <code>!=</code>) can be avoided by using the type checked comparison operators (<code>===</code> and <code>!==</code>).
When type conversion is required, JavaScript converts {{mono|Boolean}}, {{mono|Number}}, {{mono|String}}, or {{mono|Object}} operands as follows:<ref>{{cite web | url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en/JavaScript/Reference/Operators/Comparison_Operators | title=Comparison Operators - MDC Doc Center | publisher=Mozilla | date=5 August 2010 | access-date=5 March 2011 | archive-date=4 May 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504005400/https://developer.mozilla.org/en/JavaScript/Reference/Operators/Comparison_Operators | url-status=live }}</ref>
;{{small|Number and String}}: The string is converted to a number value. JavaScript attempts to convert the string numeric literal to a Number type value. First, a mathematical value is derived from the string numeric literal. Next, this value is rounded to nearest Number type value.
;{{small|Boolean}}: If one of the operands is a Boolean, the Boolean operand is converted to 1 if it is {{mono|true}}, or to 0 if it is {{mono|false}}.
;{{small|Object}}: If an object is compared with a number or string, JavaScript attempts to return the default value for the object. An object is converted to a primitive String or Number value, using the {{mono|.valueOf()}} or {{mono|.toString()}} methods of the object. If this fails, a runtime error is generated.
==== Boolean type conversion ====
{{anchor|truthy and falsy}}
{{further|Truthy (computing)}}
[[Douglas Crockford]] advocates the terms "truthy" and "falsy" to describe how values of various types behave when evaluated in a logical context, especially in regard to edge cases.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://javascript.crockford.com/style2.html | title=The Elements of JavaScript Style | publisher=Douglas Crockford | access-date=5 March 2011 | archive-date=17 March 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317074944/http://javascript.crockford.com/style2.html | url-status=live }}</ref>
The binary logical operators returned a Boolean value in early versions of JavaScript, but now they return one of the operands instead. The left–operand is returned, if it can be evaluated as : {{mono|false}}, in the case of [[logical conjunction|conjunction]]: (<code>a && b</code>), or {{mono|true}}, in the case of [[logical disjunction|disjunction]]: (<code>a || b</code>); otherwise the right–operand is returned. Automatic type coercion by the comparison operators may differ for cases of mixed Boolean and number-compatible operands (including strings that can be evaluated as a number, or objects that can be evaluated as such a string), because the Boolean operand will be compared as a numeric value. This may be unexpected. An expression can be explicitly cast to a Boolean primitive by doubling the logical [[negation|negation operator]]: ({{mono|!!}}), using the {{mono|Boolean()}} function, or using the [[Conditional (programming)|conditional operator]]: (<code>c ? t : f</code>).
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console.log(true === !!2); // true.... data types and values match
console.log(true === !!0); // false... data types match, but values differ
console.log( 1 ? true : false); // true.... only ±0 and NaN are
console.log("0" ? true : false); // true.... only the empty string is
console.log(Boolean({})); // true.... all objects are
</syntaxhighlight>
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<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
n = new Boolean(b.valueOf()); // Preferred
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===Symbol===
Symbols are a feature introduced in [[ES6]]. Each symbol is guaranteed to be a unique value, and they can be used for [[Encapsulation (computer programming)|encapsulation]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Orendorff |first1=Jason |title=ES6 In Depth: Symbols |url=https://hacks.mozilla.org/2015/06/es6-in-depth-symbols/ |website=Mozilla Hacks |access-date=13 July 2025}}</ref>
Example:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
let x = Symbol(1);
const y = Symbol(1);
x === y; // => false
const symbolObject = {};
const normalObject = {};
// since x and y are unique,
// they can be used as unique keys in an object
symbolObject[x] = 1;
symbolObject[y] = 2;
symbolObject[y]; // => 2
// as compared to normal numeric keys
normalObject[1] = 1;
normalObject[1] = 2; // overrides the value of 1
normalObject[1]; // => 2
// changing the value of x does not change the key stored in the object
x = Symbol(3);
symbolObject[x]; // => undefined
// changing x back just creates another unique Symbol
x = Symbol(1);
symbolObject[x]; // => undefined
</syntaxhighlight>
There are also ''well known symbols''. <!-- TODO: Add table or something -->
One of which is <code>Symbol.iterator</code>; if something implements <code>Symbol.iterator</code>, it is iterable:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
const x = [1, 2, 3, 4]; // x is an Array
const xIterator = x[Symbol.iterator](); // The [Symbol.iterator] function should provide an iterator for x
xIterator.next(); // { value: 1, done: false }
xIterator.next(); // { value: 2, done: false }
xIterator.next(); // { value: 3, done: false }
xIterator.next(); // { value: 4, done: false }
xIterator.next(); // { value: undefined, done: true }
xIterator.next(); // { value: undefined, done: true }
// for..of loops automatically iterate values
for (const value of x) {
console.log(value); // 1 2 3 4
}
// Sets are also iterable:
[Symbol.iterator] in Set.prototype; // true
for (const value of new Set(['apple', 'orange'])) {
console.log(value); // "apple" "orange"
}
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 433 ⟶ 524:
===Array===
{{Main|Array data type}}
An [[Array data type|Array]] is a JavaScript object prototyped from the <code>Array</code> constructor specifically designed to store data values indexed by integer keys. Arrays, unlike the basic Object type, are prototyped with methods and properties to aid the programmer in routine tasks (for example, <code>join</code>, <code>slice</code>, and <code>push</code>).
As in the [[:Category:C programming language family|C family]], arrays use a zero-based indexing scheme: A value that is inserted into an empty array by means of the <
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
// ... created, empty Array
myArray.push("hello World"); // Fill the next empty index, in this case 0
console.log(myArray[0]);
</syntaxhighlight>
Arrays have a <
Elements of <
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
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</syntaxhighlight>
The above two are equivalent. It
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
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</syntaxhighlight>
Declaration of an array can use either an <
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
let myArray;
// Array literals
myArray = [1, 2]; // length of 2
myArray = [1, 2,]; // same array - Users can also have an extra comma at the end
// It is also possible to not fill in parts of the array
myArray = [0, 1, /* hole */, /* hole */, 4, 5]; // length of 6
myArray = [0, 1, /* hole */, /* hole */, 4, 5,]; // same array
myArray = [0, 1, /* hole */, /* hole */, 4, 5, /* hole */,]; // length of 7
// With the constructor
myArray = new Array(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5); // length of 6
myArray = new Array(365); // an empty array with length 365
</syntaxhighlight>
[[Array data structure|Arrays]] are implemented so that only the defined elements use memory; they are "[[sparse array]]s". Setting {{code|lang=javascript|code=myArray[10] = 'someThing'}} and {{code|lang=javascript|code=myArray[57] = 'somethingOther'}} only uses space for these two elements, just like any other object. The <
One can use the object declaration literal to create objects that behave much like associative arrays in other languages:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
const dog = {color: "brown", size: "large"};
dog["color"]; // results in "brown"
dog.color; // also results in "brown"
Line 482 ⟶ 584:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
const cats = [{color: "brown", size: "large"},
{color: "black", size: "small"}];
cats[0]["size"]; // results in "large"
const dogs = {rover: {color: "brown", size: "large"},
spot: {color: "black", size: "small"}};
dogs["spot"]["size"]; // results in "small"
Line 494 ⟶ 596:
===Date===
A <
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
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</syntaxhighlight>
Methods to extract fields are provided, as well as a useful <
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
// Displays '2010-3-1 14:25:30':
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+ d.getHours() + ':' + d.getMinutes() + ':' + d.getSeconds());
// Built-in toString returns something like 'Mon
console.log(d);
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 518 ⟶ 620:
===Error===
Custom error messages can be created using the <
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
Line 527 ⟶ 629:
===Math===
The
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|+
|-
!Property!!Returned value<br />rounded to 5 digits!!Description
|-
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|-
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|-
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|-
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|-
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|-
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|-
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|-
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|}
Line 556 ⟶ 658:
!Example!!Returned value<br />rounded to 5 digits!!Description
|-
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====Capturing groups====
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
if (results) {
console.log("Matched: " + results[0]); // Entire match
console.log(
} else console.log("Did not find a valid date!");
</syntaxhighlight>
===Function===
Every function in JavaScript is an instance of the <
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
// x, y is the argument. 'return x + y' is the function body, which is the last in the argument list.
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 723 ⟶ 824:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
return x + y;
};
</syntaxhighlight>
In ES6, arrow function syntax was added, allowing functions that return a value to be more concise. They also retain the <code>this</code> of the global object instead of inheriting it from where it was called / what it was called on, unlike the <code>function() {}</code> expression.
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
const add = (x, y) => {return x + y;};
// values can also be implicitly returned (i.e. no return statement is needed)
const addImplicit = (x, y) => x + y;
add(1, 2); // => 3
addImplicit(1, 2) // => 3
</syntaxhighlight>
For functions that need to be hoisted, there is a separate expression:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
Line 736 ⟶ 847:
return x + y;
}
</syntaxhighlight>
Hoisting allows users to use the function before it is "declared":
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
function add(x, y) {
return x + y;
}
</syntaxhighlight>
A function instance has properties and methods.
Line 758 ⟶ 866:
}
console.log(subtract.length); // => 2,
console.log(subtract.toString());
Line 778 ⟶ 886:
console.log(2 + 6); // displays 8
// Adding a number and a string results in concatenation (from left to right)
console.log(2 + '2'); // displays 22
console.log('$' + 3 + 4); // displays $34, but $7 may have been expected
Line 784 ⟶ 892:
console.log(3 + 4 + '7'); // displays 77, numbers stay numbers until a string is added
// Convert a string to a number using the unary plus
console.log(+'2' === 2); // displays true
console.log(+'Hello'); // displays NaN
Line 803 ⟶ 911:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|}
Line 820 ⟶ 928:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|}
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
console.log(++x); // x becomes 2; displays 2
console.log(x++); // displays 2; x becomes 3
Line 842 ⟶ 950:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
console.log(x%5); // displays 2
console.log(x%6); // displays 5
Line 850 ⟶ 958:
</syntaxhighlight>
To always return a non-negative number, users can re-add the modulus and apply the modulo operator again:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
console.log((-x%5+5)%5); // displays 3
</syntaxhighlight>
Users could also do:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
const x = 17;
console.log(Math.abs(-x%5)); // also 3
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 860 ⟶ 973:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|}
Line 878 ⟶ 991:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
x += 1;
console.log(x); // displays: 10
Line 897 ⟶ 1,010:
* To learn JavaScript objects...
*/
object_3.a = 2;
Line 911 ⟶ 1,024:
message(); // displays 7 7 2
object_3.a = 5; // object_3
message(); // displays 7 7 5
Line 930 ⟶ 1,043:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
[a, b, c] = [3, 4, 5];
console.log(`${a
e = {foo: 5, bar: 6, baz: ['Baz', 'Content']};
({baz: [arr[0], arr[3]], foo: a, bar: b}
console.log(`${a
[a, b] = [b, a]; // swap contents of a and b
console.log(a + ',' + b); // displays: 6,5
Line 942 ⟶ 1,055:
[a, b, c] = [3, 4, 5]; // permutations
[a, b, c] = [b, c, a];
console.log(`${a
</syntaxhighlight>
==== Spread/rest operator ====
The ECMAScript 2015 standard
'''Spread syntax''' provides another way to destructure arrays and objects.
In other words, "<
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript" line="1">
// It can be used multiple times in the same expression
// It can be combined with non-spread items.
// For comparison, doing this without the spread operator
// creates a nested array.
// It works the same with function calls
function foo(arg1, arg2, arg3) {
console.log(`${arg1
}
//
foo(...a); // "1:2:3" → foo(a[0], a[1], a[2], a[3]);
//
foo(5, ...a, 6); // "5:1:2" → foo(5, a[0], a[1], a[2], a[3], 6);
Line 980 ⟶ 1,093:
// assigns the array to arg1, and nothing to the other parameters.
foo(a); // "1,2,3,4:undefined:undefined"
const bar = { a: 1, b: 2, c: 3 };
// This would copy the object
const copy = { ...bar }; // copy = { a: 1, b: 2, c: 3 };
// "b" would be overridden here
const override = { ...bar, b: 4 }; // override = { a: 1, c: 3, b: 4 }
</syntaxhighlight>
When <
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
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</syntaxhighlight>
Rest parameters are similar to Javascript's <
===Comparison===
{| class=wikitable
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|}
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<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
console.log(obj1 == obj2); //false
console.log(obj3 == obj1); //true
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===Logical===
JavaScript provides four logical operators:
* unary [[negation]] (<
* binary [[logical disjunction|disjunction]] (<
* ternary [[Conditional (programming)|conditional]] (<
In the context of a logical operation, any expression evaluates to true except the following''':'''
* Strings: <
* Numbers: <
* Special: <
* Boolean: <
The Boolean function can be used to explicitly convert to a primitive of type <
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
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</syntaxhighlight>
Expressions that use features such as post–incrementation (<
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
Line 1,113 ⟶ 1,232:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
</syntaxhighlight>
===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| align="center" | <code>??=</code>
| Nullish assignment
|-
| align="center" | <code><nowiki>||=</nowiki></code>
| Logical Or assignment
|-
| align="center" | <code>&&=</code>
| Logical And assignment
|}
=== Bitwise ===
JavaScript supports the following '''binary [[Bitwise operation|bitwise operators]]''':
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <code>!</code> || NOT
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|}
Line 1,141 ⟶ 1,271:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
const x = 11 & 6;
console.log(x); // 2
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 1,149 ⟶ 1,279:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| align="center" | <
|}
Line 1,158 ⟶ 1,288:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|}
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<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
let x=7;
console.log(x); // 7
x<<=3;
Line 1,184 ⟶ 1,314:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|-
| align="center" | <
|}
Line 1,194 ⟶ 1,324:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
let str = "ab" + "cd"; // "abcd"
str += "e"; // "abcde"
const str2 = "2" + 2; // "22", not "4" or 4.
</syntaxhighlight>
===??===
{{excerpt|Null coalescing operator|JavaScript}}
==Control structures==
Line 1,204 ⟶ 1,337:
===Compound statements===
A pair of curly brackets <
===If ... else===
Line 1,222 ⟶ 1,355:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 1,228 ⟶ 1,361:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
const result = expression;
const result = alternative;
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 1,246 ⟶ 1,379:
break;
case ANOTHERVALUE:
// statements for when ANOTHERVALUE || ORNAOTHERONE
// no break statement, falling through to the following case
case ORANOTHERONE:
// statements specific to ORANOTHERONE (i.e. !ANOTHERVALUE && ORANOTHER);
break; //The buck stops here.
case YETANOTHER:
// statements;
break;
Line 1,254 ⟶ 1,393:
</syntaxhighlight>
* <
* Add a break statement to the end of the last case as a precautionary measure, in case additional cases are added later.
* String literal values can also be used for the case values.
Line 1,281 ⟶ 1,420:
===For ... in loop===
The syntax of the JavaScript <code>[[Foreach loop|for ... in loop]]</code> is as follows:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
Line 1,291 ⟶ 1,430:
* Iterates through all enumerable properties of an object.
* Iterates through all used indices of array including all user-defined properties of array object, if any. Thus it may be better to use a traditional for loop with a numeric index when iterating over arrays.
* There are differences between the various Web browsers with regard to which properties will be reflected with the for...in loop statement. In theory, this is controlled by an internal state property defined by the ECMAscript standard called "DontEnum", but in practice, each browser returns a slightly different set of properties during introspection. It is useful to test for a given property using {{nowrap|{{code|lang=javascript|code=if (some_object.hasOwnProperty(property_name)) { ... } }}}}. Thus, adding a method to the array prototype with {{nowrap|{{code|lang=javascript|code=Array.prototype.newMethod = function() {...} }}}} may cause <code>for ... in</code> loops to loop over the method's name.
===While loop===
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<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
with (document) {
};
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 1,334 ⟶ 1,473:
===Labels===
JavaScript supports nested labels in most implementations. Loops or blocks can be
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
loop1: for (
if (a === 4)
console.log('a = ' + a);
loop2: for (
if (b === 3)
if (b === 6) continue
console.log('b = ' + b);
} //end of loop2
console.log('finished');
} //end of loop1
block1: {
console.log('Hello'); // Displays 'Hello'
Line 1,362 ⟶ 1,495:
==Functions==
{{Main|Function (computer programming)}}
A [[
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript+genshitext">
function gcd(
if (isNaN(number1*number2)) throw TypeError("Non-Numeric arguments not allowed.");
number1 = Math.round(number1);
number2 = Math.round(number2);
let difference = number1 - number2;
if (difference === 0) return number1;
return difference > 0 ? gcd(number2, difference) : gcd(number1, -difference);
}
console.log(gcd(60, 40)); // 20
//In the absence of parentheses following the identifier 'gcd' on the RHS of the assignment below,
//'gcd' returns a reference to the function itself without invoking it.
let mygcd = gcd; // mygcd and gcd reference the same function.
console.log(mygcd(60, 40)); // 20
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 1,380 ⟶ 1,518:
Functions are [[first class object]]s and may be assigned to other variables.
The number of arguments given when calling a function may not necessarily correspond to the number of arguments in the function definition; a named argument in the definition that does not have a matching argument in the call will have the value {{mono|undefined}} (that can be implicitly cast to false). Within the function, the arguments may also be accessed through the {{mono|arguments}} object; this provides access to all arguments using indices (e.g. {{code|lang=javascript|code=arguments[0], arguments[1], ... arguments[n]}}), including those beyond the number of named arguments. (While the arguments list has a <
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
Line 1,396 ⟶ 1,534:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
function foo(p) {
p = obj2; // Ignores actual parameter
Line 1,403 ⟶ 1,541:
}
foo(obj1, 3); // Does not affect obj1 at all. 3 is additional parameter
console.log(`${obj1.a}
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 1,409 ⟶ 1,547:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
function foo() {
bar = function() { console.log(
baz = function(x) {
}
foo();
baz("
bar(); //
console.log(
</syntaxhighlight>
An ''anonymous function'' is simply a function without a name and can be written either using function or arrow notation. In these equivalent examples an anonymous function is passed to the '''map''' function and is applied to each of the elements of the array.<ref>{{cite web |last=Yadav |first=Amitya |date=4 October 2024 |title=Named function vs Anonymous Function Impacts |url=https://aditya003-ay.medium.com/named-function-vs-anonymous-function-impacts-94e2472ed7bb |website=medium.com |access-date=19 February 2025}}</ref>
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
[1,2,3].map(function(x) { return x*2;); //returns [2,4,6]
[1,2,3].map((x) => { return x*2;}); //same result
</syntaxhighlight>
A ''generator function'' is signified placing an * after the keyword ''function'' and contains one or more ''yield'' statements. The effect is to return a value and pause execution at the current state. Declaring an generator function returns an iterator. Subsequent calls to ''iterator.next()'' resumes execution until the next ''yield''. When the iterator returns without using a yield statement there are no more values and the '''done''' property of the iterator is set to '''true'''.<ref> {{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |title=function* |url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements/function*|website=mdm web docs |access-date=23 February 2025}}</ref>
With the exception of [[iOS]] devices from Apple, generators are not implemented for browsers on mobile devices. <ref> {{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |title=ES6 Generators |url=https://caniuse.com/?search=generator|website=medium.com |access-date=23 February 2025}}</ref>
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
function* generator() {
yield "red";
yield "green";
yield "blue";
}
let iterator=generator();
let current;
while(current=iterator.next().value)
console.log(current); //displays red, green then blue
console.log(iterator.next().done) //displays true
</syntaxhighlight>
===Async/await===
{{excerpt|Async/await|In JavaScript}}
==Objects==
For convenience, types are normally subdivided into ''primitives'' and ''objects''. Objects are entities that have an identity (they are only equal to themselves) and that map property names to values ("slots" in [[prototype-based programming]] terminology). Objects may be thought of as [[associative arrays]] or hashes, and are often implemented using these data structures. However, objects have additional features, such as a
JavaScript has several kinds of built-in objects, namely <
===Creating objects===
Line 1,432 ⟶ 1,600:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
// Constructor
// Object literal
// Custom constructor (see below)
Line 1,445 ⟶ 1,613:
<syntaxhighlight lang="javascript">
name: {
first: "Mel",
Line 1,458 ⟶ 1,626:
===Methods===
A [[
When called as a method, the standard local variable ''{{mono|this}}'' is just automatically set to the object instance to the left of the "{{mono|.}}". (There are also ''{{mono|call}}'' and ''{{mono|apply}}'' methods that can set ''{{mono|this}}'' explicitly—some packages such as [[jQuery]] do unusual things with ''{{mono|this}}''.)
In the example below, Foo is being used as a constructor. There is nothing special about a constructor - it is just a plain function that
Note that in the example below, Foo is simply assigning values to slots, some of which are functions. Thus it can assign different functions to different instances. There is no prototyping in this example.
Line 1,480 ⟶ 1,648:
}
foo2.prefix = "b-";
Line 1,488 ⟶ 1,656:
foo1.m3 = px; // Assigns the function itself, not its evaluated result, i.e. not px()
baz.m4 = px; // No need for a constructor to make an object.
Line 1,494 ⟶ 1,662:
// m1/m3/m4 a-X a-X c-X
foo1.m2(); // Throws an exception, because foo1.m2
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 1,512 ⟶ 1,680:
console.log(MyObject.staticC); // blue
const object = new MyObject('red', 1000);
console.log(object.attributeA); // red
console.log(object
console.log(object.staticC); // undefined
Line 1,523 ⟶ 1,691:
console.log(object.attributeB); // undefined
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 1,534 ⟶ 1,700:
// x = new Foo() would set x's prototype to Foo.prototype,
// and Foo.prototype has a constructor slot pointing back to Foo).
const x = new Foo();
// The above is almost equivalent to
const y = {};
y.constructor = Foo;
y.constructor();
// Except
x.constructor == y.constructor; // true
x instanceof Foo; // true
y instanceof Foo; // false
// y's prototype is Object.prototype, not
// Foo.prototype, since it was
// {} instead of new Foo.
// Even though Foo is set to y's constructor slot,
Line 1,551 ⟶ 1,717:
</syntaxhighlight>
Functions are objects themselves, which can be used to produce an effect similar to "static properties" (using C++/Java terminology) as shown below. (The function object also has a special <
Object deletion is rarely used as the scripting engine will [[Garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collect]] objects that are no longer being referenced.
Line 1,576 ⟶ 1,742:
}
const base = new Base();
Derived.prototype = base; // Must be before new Derived()
Derived.prototype.constructor = Derived; // Required to make `instanceof` work
const d = new Derived(); // Copies Derived.prototype to d instance's hidden prototype slot.
d instanceof Derived; // true
d instanceof Base; // true
base.aBaseFunction = function() { console.log("Base::aNEWBaseFunction()"); };
d.anOverride(); // Derived::anOverride()
Line 1,603 ⟶ 1,769:
Base.prototype.m = m2;
const bar = new Base();
console.log("bar.m " + bar.m()); // bar.m Two
function Top() { this.m = m3; }
const t = new Top();
const foo = new Base();
Base.prototype = t;
// No effect on foo, the *reference* to t is copied.
console.log("foo.m " + foo.m()); // foo.m Two
const baz = new Base();
console.log("baz.m " + baz.m()); // baz.m Three
Line 1,662 ⟶ 1,828:
==Native functions and methods==
===eval (expression) ===
Evaluates
<syntaxhighlight lang="
> (function foo() {
... var x = 7;
... console.log("val " + eval("x + 2"));
... })();
val 9
undefined
</syntaxhighlight>
Line 1,678 ⟶ 1,844:
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
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* ECMAScript standard references: [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-262.htm ECMA-262]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120527095306/http://javalessons.com/cgi-bin/fun/java-tutorials-main.cgi?sub=javascript&code=script Interactive JavaScript Lessons - example-based]
* [http://javascript.about.com/ JavaScript on About.com: lessons and explanation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225135310/http://javascript.about.com/ |date=25 February 2017 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150110202627/http://wisentechnologies.com/it-courses/JavaScript-Training-in-Chennai.aspx JavaScript Training]
* Mozilla Developer Center Core References for JavaScript versions [https://developer.mozilla.org/en/docs/Core_JavaScript_1.5_Reference 1.5], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070210000908/http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/CoreReferenceJS14/index.html 1.4], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070210000504/http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/ClientReferenceJS13/index.html 1.3] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20070210000545/http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/jsref/index.htm 1.2]
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Javascript Syntax}}
[[Category:JavaScript|syntax]]
[[Category:Articles with example JavaScript code]]
[[Category:Programming language syntax]]
| |||