Routine activity theory: Difference between revisions

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[[File:Routine activity theory.png|thumb|300px|A graphical model of the routine activity theory. The theory stipulates three necessary conditions for most crime; a likely offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian, coming together in time and space. The lack of any of the three elements is sufficient to prevent a crime which requires offender-victim contact.]]

'''Routine activity theory''' is a sub-field of [[crime opportunity theory]] that focuses on situations of crimes. It was first proposed by [[Marcus Felson]] and [[Lawrence E. Cohen]] in their explanation of crime rate changes in the United States between 1947 and 1974.<ref name="Cohen Felson Social Change and Crime Rate Trends">{{cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=Lawrence E. |last2=Felson |first2=Marcus |title=Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach |journal=American Sociological Review |date=1979 |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=588–608 |doi=10.2307/2094589 |jstor=2094589 |oclc=9964473170 }}</ref> The theory has been extensively applied and has become one of the most cited theories in criminology. Unlike criminological theories of criminality, routine activity theory studies crime as an event, closely relates crime to its environment and emphasizes its ecological process,<ref name="Encyclopedia of Theoretical Criminology"/><ref name="Thomas Jeong Wolff Testing Routine Activity Theory">{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Christopher |last2=Jeong |first2=Jinuk |last3=Wolff |first3=Kevin T |title=Testing Routine Activity Theory: Behavioural Pathways Linking Temperature to Crime |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/387118615_Testing_Routine_Activity_Theory_Behavioural_Pathways_Linking_Temperature_to_Crime|journal=The British Journal of Criminology |date=16 December 2024 |doi=10.1093/bjc/azae091 }}</ref> thereby diverting academic attention away from mere offenders.

After [[World War II]], the economy of Western countries started to boom and the Welfare states were expanding. Despite this, crime rose significantly during this time. According to Felson and Cohen, the reason for the increase is that the prosperity of contemporary society offers more opportunities for crime to occur. For example, the use of automobiles, on one hand, enables offenders to move more freely to conduct their violations and, on the other hand, provide more targets for theft. Other social changes such as college enrollment, female labor participation, urbanization, suburbanization, and lifestyles all contribute to the supply of opportunities and, subsequently, the occurrence of crime.<ref name="Cohen Felson Social Change and Crime Rate Trends"/>

Routine activity theory has its foundation in human ecology and [[rational choice theory]]. Over time, the theory has been extensively employed to study sexual crimes, robberies, cyber crimes, residential burglary and corresponding victimizations, among others. It is also worth noting that, in the study of criminal victimization, the routine activity theory is often regarded as "essentially similar"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Garofalo |first1=James |chapter=Reassessing the lifestyle model of criminal victimization |pages=23–42 |editor1-last=Gottfredson |editor1-first=Michael R. |editor2-last=Hirschi |editor2-first=Travis |title=Positive Criminology |date=1987 |publisher=Sage Publications |isbn=978-0-608-01455-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maxfield |first1=Michael G. |title=Lifestyle and Routine Activity Theories of Crime: Empirical Studies of Victimization, Delinquency, and Offender Decision-Making |journal=Journal of Quantitative Criminology |date=1987 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=275–282 |id={{INIST|7621465}} |doi=10.1007/BF01066831 |jstor=23365565 }}</ref> to [[Lifestyle theory|lifestyle theory of criminology]] by {{harvp|Hindelang|Gottfredson|Garofalo|1978}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hindelang |first1=Michael J. |last2=Gottfredson |first2=Michael R. |last3=Garofalo |first3=James |title=Victims of Personal Crime: An Empirical Foundation for a Theory of Personal Victimization |date=1978 |publisher=Ballinger Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-88410-793-4 }}{{pn|date=July 2025}}</ref> More recently, routine activity theory has been empirically evaluated as a mechanism explaining the long-noted association between warmer weather and some types of crime.<ref name="Thomas Jeong Wolff Testing Routine Activity Theory"/>

==Theoretical framework==

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===Motivated offender===

Motivated offenders are individuals who are not only capable of committing criminal activity, but are willing to do so.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Felson |first1=Marcus |last2=Cohen |first2=Lawrence E. |title=Human Ecology and Crime: A Routine Activity Approach |journal=Human Ecology |date=1980 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=389–406 |doi=10.1007/BF01561001 |jstor=4602572 |bibcode=1980HumEc...8..389F }}</ref> This element that has received the most criticism due to the lack of information regarding what it truly is.<ref name="Encyclopedia of Theoretical Criminology">{{Citecite book |doi=10.1002/9781118517390.wbetc198 |chapter=Routine Activity Theory |last=Miro |first=Fernando |date=January 31, 2014 |title=The Encyclopedia of Theoretical Criminology |editiondate=1st2014 |editor-firstlast1=J.Miró Mitchell|first1=Fernando |editor-lastpages=Miller1–7 |isbn=978-10-118470-5173965844-0 |doi=10.1002/97811185173904 }}</ref> A motivated offender can be pointed out as any type of person who has true intent to commit a crime against an individual or property. However, the motivated offender has to be someone who is able to commit the crime, or, in other words, has everything he or she needs to commit a crime, physically, and mentally.<ref name="Encyclopedia of Theoretical Criminology" />

===Suitable target===

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===Absence of a suitable guardian===

Guardianship refers to a person or an object that is effective in deterring criminal offenses,<ref name="Social Inequality">{{cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=Lawrence E. |last2=Kluegel |first2=James R. |last3=Land |first3=Kenneth C. |title=Social Inequality and Predatory Criminal Victimization: An Exposition and Test of A Formal Theory|journal=American Sociological Review|date=1981|volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=505–524|doi=10.2307/2094935 |jstor=2094935 }}</ref> and sometimes crime is stopped by simple presence of guardianship in space and time.<ref>{{Citecite book journal|lastlast1=Felson |firstfirst1=Marcus |datechapter=1995Those Who Discourage Crime |titlepages=Those53–66 who|chapter-url=https://popcenter.asu.edu/sites/default/files/library/CrimePrevention/Volume_04/03-Felson.pdf discourage|editor1-last=Eck crime|journaleditor1-first=John E. |editor2-last=Weisburd |editor2-first=David |title=Crime and Place |date=1995 |series=Crime Prevention Studies |volume=4 |pagespublisher=53–66Criminal Justice Press |isbn=978-1-881798-05-7 }}</ref> A guardian would not necessarily have to be a policeman or a security guard but rather a person whose proximity or presence would lower the chances of a crime happening. This could include a housewife, a doorman, a neighbor or a co-worker. Whilst inadvertent, the presence of a guardian has a powerful impact on the likelihood of a crime taking place. Thus when the guardian is not within the vicinity of the target, the likelihood of a crime occurring is significantly higher.{{sfn|Felson|Clarke|1998|p=4}}

==Empirical evidence==

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*[[Mobility triangles]]

*[[Rational choice theory (criminology)]]

*[[Social disorganization theory]]

==References==

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==Further reading==

* {{Citecite book |ref=none |first1doi=Ronald V10. |last1=Clarke |first2=Marcus |last2=Felson |date=19934324/9781315128788-1 |chapter=Introduction: Criminology, Routine Activity, and Rational Choice |title=Advances in Criminological Theory: Routine Activity and Rational Choice |volumedate=52017 |last1=Clarke |first1=Ronald V. |last2=Felson |first2=Marcus |pages=1–14 |isbn=978-1-315-12878-8 }}

* {{Citecite book |ref=none |lastlast1=Felson |firstfirst1=M. |date=1994Marcus |title=Crime and everydayEveryday lifeLife: InsightInsights and implicationsImplications for societySociety |___locationdate=Thousand Oaks, CA1994 |publisher=Pine Forge Press |isbn=978-0-08-039902-7 |oclc=1420085852 }}

* {{Cite journal|ref=none |last=Hawdon |first=J. E. |date=1999 |title=Daily Routines and Crime: Using Routine Activities as Measures of Hirschi's Involvement |journal=Youth & Society |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=395–415 |doi=10.1177/0044118X99030004001 }}

* {{Citecite book |ref=none |doi=10.1002/9781118517390 |title=The Encyclopedia of Theoretical Criminology |editiondate=1st |editor-first=J. Mitchell |editor-last=Miller2014 |isbn=978-10-118470-5173965844-04 |doieditor-last1=10.1002/9781118517390Miller |yeareditor-first1=2014J. |publisher=John Wiley &Mitchell Sons}}

* {{cite journal|ref=none |last1=Rountree |first1=P. W. |last2=Land |first2=K. C. |last3=Miethe |first3=T. D. |date=1994 |title=Macro-micro integration in the study of victimization: A hierarchical logistic model analysis across Seattle neighborhoods |journal=Criminology |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=387–414 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-9125.1994.tb01159.x }}

* {{cite journal|ref=none |last1=Smith |first1=W. R. |last2=Frazee |first2=S. G. |last3=Davison |first3=E. L. |date=2000 |title=Furthering the integration of routine activity and social disorganization theories: Small units of analysis and the study of street robbery as a diffusion process. |journal=Criminology |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=489–524 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00897.x }}