Common Security and Defence Policy: Difference between revisions

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*four [[Agencies of the European Union|agencies]], including the [[European Defence Agency|Defence Agency]] (EDA).

The EU command and control structures are much smaller than the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]]'s (NATO) Command Structure (NCS), which has been established for territorial defence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Helferich |first=John |date=2024 |title=Trapped in the grey zone: NATO-CSDP relations in a new era of European security governance |journal=International Politics |language=en |doi=10.1057/s41311-024-00647-9 |issn=1740-3898|doi-access=free }}</ref> It has been agreed that NATO's [[Allied Command Operations]] (ACO) may be used for the conduct of the EU's missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, is the EU's first permanent military OHQ. In parallel, the [[European Defence Fund]] (EDF, established in 2017) marks the first time the [[Budget of the European Union|EU budget]] is used to finance multinational defence projects.

Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the High Representative, adopted by the Foreign Affairs Council, generally requiring unanimity, to be then implemented by the High Representative.

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| image2 = Organisation of the European Defence Community.svg

| width2 = 380

| caption2 = OrganigrammeOrganizational chart for the [[European Defence Community]] (EDC), which – if ratified – would have createdcreate a unified defence arm for the later to be established [[Treaty establishing the European Politicaldefence Community|European Political Community]] (EPC)force. This force would represent an autonomous European pillar within NATO, under the authority of the [[Supreme Allied Commander Europe|Supreme Commander]].

| image3 =

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In 1970 the [[European Political Cooperation]] (EPC) brought about the [[European Communities]]' (EC) initial foreign policy coordination. Opposition to the addition of security and defence matters to the EPC led to the reactivation of the WEU in 1984 by its member states, which were also EC member states.

European defence integration gained momentum soon after the end of the Cold War, partly as a result of the [[Yugoslavia and the European Economic Community#1988–1992|EC's failure to prevent the Yugoslav Wars]]. In 1992, the WEU was given [[Petersberg Declaration|new tasks]], and the following year the [[Treaty of Maastricht]] founded the EU and replaced the EPC with the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]] (CFSP) [[Three pillars of the European Union|pillar]]. In 1996 NATO agreed to let the WEU develop a so-called '''European Security and Defence Identity''' ('''ESDI''').<ref>{{cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/summary/glossary/european_security_defence_identity.html|title=Glossary of summaries - EUR-Lex|website=eur-lex.europa.eu}}</ref> The 1998 [[Saint-Malo declaration|St. Malo declaration]] signalled that the traditionally hesitant [[United Kingdom]] was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://euobserver.com/foreign/138147|title=EU to spend €1.5bn a year on joint defence|website=EUobserver|date=7 June 2017 }}</ref> This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the '''European Security and Defence Policy''' ('''ESDP''') in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the [[European Security Strategy]] identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009, the [[Treaty of Lisbon]] introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 [[European Union Global Strategy|a new security strategy]] was introduced, which along with the [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|Russian annexation of Crimea]], the [[Brexit|British withdrawal]] from the EU and the [[2016 United States presidential election|election of Donald Trump]] as US president have given the CSDP a new impetus.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Helferich |first1=John |last2=De France |first2=Olivier |date=2022 |title=Les spectres de la défense européenne se raniment |url=https://legrandcontinent.eu/fr/2022/02/04/les-spectres-de-la-defense-europeenne-se-raniment/ |journal=Le Grand Continent}}</ref>

===Deployments===

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Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Sudan]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and [[Ukraine]]–[[Moldova]]. There is also a judicial mission in [[Iraq]] ([[EUJUST Lex]]). On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest and most multi-national mission to Africa, [[EUFOR Tchad/RCA]].<ref>[http://www.consilium.europa.eu/showPage.aspx?id=1366&lang=en "EUFOR Tchad/RCA"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214224814/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/showPage.aspx?id=1366&lang=en |date=14 December 2014 }} consilium.europa.eu</ref> The UN-mandated mission involves troops from 25 EU states (19 in the field) deployed in areas of eastern [[Chad]] and the north-eastern [[Central African Republic]] in order to improve security in those regions. [[EUFOR Tchad/RCA]] reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008, and handed over security duties to the UN (MINURCAT mission) in mid-March 2009.<ref>Benjamin Pohl (2013). [http://euroakadeemia.ee/materjalid/Logic%20of%20the%20EU%20crises%20mang.pdf "The logic underpinning EU crisis management operations"]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214175238/http://euroakadeemia.ee/materjalid/Logic%20of%20the%20EU%20crises%20mang.pdf |date=14 December 2014 }}, ''European Security'', 22(3): 307–325, {{doi|10.1080/09662839.2012.726220}}, p. 311.</ref>

The EU launched its first maritime CSDP operation on 12 December 2008 ([[Operation Atalanta]]). The concept of the European Union Naval Force (EU NAVFOR) was created on the back of this operation, which is still successfully combatting [[piracy off the coast of Somalia]] almost a decade later. A second such intervention was launched in 2015 to tackle migration problems in the southern Mediterranean ([[EUNAVFOR Med]]), working under the name [[Operation Sophia|Operation SOPHIA]].

Most of the CSDP missions deployed so far are mandated to support [[Security sector governance and reform|security sector reforms]] (SSR) in host-states. One of the core principles of CSDP support to SSR is local ownership. The EU Council defines ownership as "the appropriation by the local authorities of the commonly agreed objectives and principles".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ifp-ew.eu/resources/EU_Concept_for_ESDP_support_to_Security_Sector_Reform.pdf|title=EU Concept for ESDP support to Security Sector Reform}}</ref> Despite EU's strong rhetorical attachment to the local ownership principle, research shows that CSDP missions continue to be an externally driven, top-down and supply-driven endeavour, resulting often in the low degree of local participation.<ref>{{Cite journal|title='Here is your mission, now own it!' The rhetoric and practice of local ownership in EU interventions|first=Filip|last=Ejdus|date=2 October 2017|journal=European Security|volume=26|issue=4|pages=461–484|doi=10.1080/09662839.2017.1333495|doi-access=free|hdl=1983/d77fa2b0-82f5-4bc7-82f8-0d796a02c2cd|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

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The European Union Global Strategy (EUGS) is the updated doctrine of the EU to improve the effectiveness of the CSDP, including the defence and security of the members states, the protection of civilians, cooperation between the member states' armed forces, management of immigration, crises etc. Adopted on 28 June 2016,<ref>EEAS [https://eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/top_stories/pdf/eugs_review_web.pdf (June 2016) Shared Vision, Common Action: A Stronger Europe] A Global Strategy for the

European Union’s Foreign And Security Policy</ref> it replaces the [[European Security Strategy]] of 2003. The EUGS is complemented by a document titled "Implementation Plan on Security and Defense" (IPSD).<ref>Council of the European Union [https://www.coe-civ.eu/kh/implementation-plan-on-security-and-defence (2016) Implementation Plan on Security and Defence]</ref>

[[Deterrence theory]] is applied to deter aggressors as one of the core mandates of Common Security and Defence Policy, yet lacks credibility due to insufficient resources.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2017.1370581 | doi=10.1080/13533312.2017.1370581 | title=The Credibility of European Union Military Operations' Deterrence Postures | date=2018 | last1=Nováky | first1=Niklas I. M. | journal=International Peacekeeping | volume=25 | issue=2 | pages=191–216 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Forces==

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In a speech in 2012, Swedish General [[Håkan Syrén]] criticised the spending levels of European Union countries, saying that in the future those countries' military capability will decrease, creating "critical shortfalls".<ref>{{cite news |title=Some EU states may no longer afford air forces-general |first=Adrian |last=Croft |url=http://mobile.reuters.com/article/idUSL5E8KJJSL20120919?irpc=932 |work=Reuters |date=19 September 2012 |access-date=31 March 2013}}</ref>

In May 2025, EU member states agreed to launch a €150bn loans-for-arms fund backed by the bloc’s shared budget. The initiative will allow EU countries to borrow from Brussels and spend on weapons systems and platforms through joint procurement.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Foy |first1=Henry |last2=Tamma |first2=Paola |date=2025-05-19 |title=EU agrees to launch €150bn loans-for-arms scheme |url=https://www.ft.com/content/b5c95e3d-74e2-4eb5-a88b-9e650cb93ce2 |access-date=2025-05-19 |work=Financial Times}}</ref>

'''Guide to table:'''

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| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|GER}} {{small|[[German Armed Forces|Germany]]}}<ref name="Flightglobal"/> || 129 (35 ordered) || || || || 65 IDS & 21 [[Tornado ECR]]|| (35 ordered) || || || || 212

|-

| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|GRC}} {{small|[[Military of Greece|Greece]]}}<ref name="Flightglobal"/> || || || 19 (5 ordered) || 29 || || (40 ordered) || 152<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1239962384|title=The military balance 2021|date=2021|others=James Hackett, International Institute for Strategic Studies|isbn=978-1-000-41545-2|___location=Abingdon, Oxon|oclc=1239962384}}</ref>|| || 17&nbsp;[[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F-4]] || 217<ref name=":1" />

|-

| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|HUN}} {{small|[[Hungarian Defence Force|Hungary]]}}<ref name="Flightglobal"/> || || 14 (4 ordered) || || || || || || || || 14

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| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|LVA}} {{small|[[Military of Latvia|Latvia]]}}<ref name="Flightglobal"/> || || || || || || || || || || ||

|-

| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|LTU}} {{small|[[Lithuanian Armed Forces|Lithuania]]}}<ref name="Flightglobal"/> || || || || || || || 3 || (3 ordered) || 2|| || 5

|-

| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|LUX}} {{small|[[Luxembourg Army|Luxembourg]]}}<ref name="Flightglobal"/> || || || || 1 || || || || || || || 1

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| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|ESP}} {{small|[[Spanish Armed Forces|Spain]]}}<ref name="Flightglobal"/> || (1 ordered)|| || || 14 (13 ordered) || 7 || 28 (16 ordered) || || || || 7 [[CASA C-212 Aviocar|C212]] <br>6 [[Cessna Citation V|Citation V]] <br>3 [[Beechcraft Super King Air|King Air 90]] || 65

|-

| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|SWE}} {{small|[[Swedish Armed Forces|Sweden]]}}<ref name="Flightglobal"/> || || 1|| || || 5 || || || (4 ordered) || || 4 [[Saab 340]] || 10

|-

| style="text-align:left;"|Shared within EU part of [[Airbus A330 MRTT#Multinational Multi-Role Tanker Transport Fleet|MMF]]|| 8 (5 ordered) || || || || || || || || || 3 [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]]|| 11

|-class="sortbottom"

| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|EU}} {{small|'''[[EU]]'''}}<ref name="Flightglobal"/> || '''20 (6)'''|| '''10''' || '''4'''|| '''91 (47)'''|| '''71'''|| '''93 (17)'''|| '''34 (1)'''|| '''3 (1421)'''|| '''17'''|| '''160'''|| '''503'''

|}

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=== Achievements ===

Since its reconfiguration in 2016, EUCAP Somalia has made significant strides in enhancing Somalia’s maritime security capabilities. Recent achievements include improving the Somali Police Force's (SPF) command, control, and communication capabilities, as well as enhancing their ability to manage security incidents in Mogadishu. EUCAP has deployed a specialized multinational team to support the SPF's Maritime Police Unit and has played a key role in the development of Somaliland’s Coast Guard, conducting joint exercises with [[Operation Atalanta|EUNAVFOR Operation ATALANTA]]. The mission also trained and equipped the Puntland Maritime Police Force, enhancing their capacity to enforce maritime law. Additionally, EUCAP has supported the Somali Attorney General’s Maritime Crimes Unit by providing training in internal procedures and investigations and launching an internship program for young lawyers. Despite the progress, Somalia continues to face challenges in maritime governance due to political instability and resource limitations, but EUCAP remains committed to addressing these issues with Somali authorities and international partners.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.sipri.org/publications/2020/sipri-background-papers/european-union-training-mission-somalia-assessment |title=The European Union Training Mission in Somalia: An Assessment |date=November 2020 |publisher=SIPRI |language=en}}</ref>

[https://www.eeas.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/2025/EUCAP%20infosheet%20Feb%202025.pdf '''Mission's achievements during mandate 2022 - 24''']

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{{Portal|European Union

}}

==See also==

{{Portal|European Union}}

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{{Common Security and Defence Policy}}

{{European Union topics}}

{{Military of Europe}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Common Security and Defence Policy| ]]

[[Category:Military of the European Union| ]]

[[Category:Common Security and Defence Policy]]