Constructivist teaching methods: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 20:40, 19 July 2017

Latest revision as of 19:38, 17 July 2025

(42 intermediate revisions by 29 users not shown)

Line 1:

{{short description|Overview of constructivist teaching methods}}

'''Constructivist teaching''' is based on [[Constructivism (learning theory)|constructivist learning theory]]. Constructivist teaching is based on the belief that learning occurs as learners are actively involved in a process of meaning and [[knowledge construction]] as opposed to [[passive learning|passively receiving information]]. Learners are the makers of meaning and knowledge.

{{Multiple issues|

{{Lead too short|date=September 2019}}

{{Essay-like|date=September 2019}}

}}

'''Constructivist teaching''' is based on [[constructivism (philosophy of education)|constructivism]]. Constructivist teaching is based on the belief that learning occurs as learners are actively involved in a process of meaning and [[knowledge construction]] as opposed to [[passive learning|passively receiving information]].

==History==

Constructivist approach teaching methods are based on [[Constructivism (learning theory)|constructivist]] [[learning theory (education)|learning theory]]. Along with [[John Dewey]], [[Jean Piaget]] researched [[childhood development]] and education. Both Dewey and Piaget were very influential in the development of informal education.Dewey's idea of influential education suggests that education must engage with and enlarge experience and the exploration of thinking and reflection associated with the role of educators. Piaget's role in the constructivist teaching suggest that we learn by expanding our knowledge by experiences which are generated through play from infancy to adulthood which are necessary for learning. Their theories are now encompassed in the broader movement of [[progressive education]]. Constructivist learning theory says that all knowledge is constructed from a base of prior knowledge. Children are not a blank slate and knowledge cannot be imparted without the child making sense of it according to his or her current conceptions. Therefore, children learn best when they are allowed to construct a personal understanding based on experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.<ref name="thirteenorg">[http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index_sub5.html Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning]</ref>

==History==

==Constructivist teaching strategies==

Constructivist approach teaching methods are based on Constructivist [[learning theory (education)|learning theory]]. Scholars such as Ernst von Glasersfeld trace the origin of this approach to the philosophies of [[Immanuel Kant]], [[George Berkeley]], and [[Jean Piaget]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Matthews|first=Michael R.|title=International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy and Science Teaching|date=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-007-7653-1|___location=Dordrecht|pages=1024}}</ref> There are those who also cite the contribution of [[John Dewey]] such as his works on action research, which allows the construction of complex understanding of teaching and learning.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kincheloe|first1=Joe L.|title=The Praeger Handbook of Education and Psychology|last2=Horn|first2=Raymond A.|date=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-33123-7|___location=Westport, CT|pages=491}}</ref>

Dewey and Piaget researched [[childhood development]] and education; both were very influential in the development of informal education. Dewey's idea of influential education suggests that education must engage with and enlarge exploration of thinking and reflection associated with the role of educators. Contrary to this, Piaget argued that we learn by expanding our knowledge by experiences which are generated through play from infancy to adulthood which are necessary for learning. Both theories are now encompassed by the broader movement of [[progressive education]]. Constructivist learning theory states that all knowledge is constructed from a base of prior knowledge. As such, children are not to be treated as a blank slate, and make sense of classroom material in the context of his or her current knowledge.<ref name="thirteenorg">[http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index_sub5.html Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning]</ref>

===Characteristics===

One of the primary goals of using constructivist teaching is that students learn how to learn by giving them the training to take initiative for their own learning experiences.

The development of constructivist models of teaching are specifically attributed to the works of [[Maria Montessori]], which were further developed by more recent by theorists such as [[David A. Kolb]], and Ronald Fry, among others.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Totten|first=Christopher W.|title=An Architectural Approach to Level Design|date=2014|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4665-8541-6|___location=Boca Raton, FL|pages=167}}</ref> These theorists have proposed sensory and activity-based learning methods. It was Kolb and Fry who were able to develop a methodology for experiential learning that involves concrete experience, observation and reflection, forming abstract concepts, and testing in new situations.<ref name=":0" />

According to Audrey Gray{{who|date=May 2012}}, the characteristics of a constructivist classroom are as follows:

*the learners are actively involved

*the environment is democratic

*the activities are interactive and student-centered

*the teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to be responsible and autonomous

==Activities==

===Examples of activities===

Furthermore,The inconstructivist themethod constructivistis classroom,composed studentsof workat primarilyleast infive groupsstages: andinviting learningideas, andexploration, knowledgeproposition, areexplanation interactiveand solution, and dynamictaking action.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pelech|first=James|title=The ThereComprehensive isHandbook aof greatConstructivist focusTeaching: andFrom emphasisTheory to Practice|date=2010|publisher=IAP|isbn=978-1-60752-375-8|___location=Charlotte, NC|pages=19}}</ref> The constructivist classroom also focuses on socialdaily andactivities when it comes to student work. Teaching methods also emphasize communication and social skills, as well as collaborationintellectual and exchange of ideascollaboration.<ref name="thirteenorg"/> This is contrarydifferent tofrom thea traditional classroom in whichwhere students work primarily work alone, learning is achieved through repetition, and the subjects are strictly adhered to and are guided by a textbooklecture. Some activitiesActivities encouraged in constructivist classrooms areinclude:

* '''Experimentation:''' Students individually perform an experiment and then come together as a class to discuss the results.

* '''Research projects:''' Students research a topic and can present their findings to the class.

Line 22 ⟶ 21:

* '''Films:''' These provide visual context and thus bring another sense into the learning experience.

* '''Class discussions:''' This technique is used in all of the methods described above. It is one of the most important distinctions of constructivist teaching methods.<ref name="templeedu">[http://www.temple.edu/CETP/temple_teach/CM-struc.html Strategies for Constructivist Teaching] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050920023123/http://www.temple.edu/CETP/temple_teach/CM-struc.html |date=September 20, 2005 }}</ref>

* '''Campus wikis:''' These provide learners with a platform for curating helpful learning resources.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pascoe|first1=Michael|last2=Monroe|first2=Forrest|last3=Macfarlane|first3=Helen|date=2018-06-14|title=Taking Constructivism One Step Further: Post Hoc Analysis of a Student-Created Wiki|journal=JMIR Medical Education|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=e16|doi=10.2196/mededu.9197|pmid=29903697|pmc=6024102|issn=2369-3762 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Constructivist approaches can also be used in online learning. For example, toolsTools such as discussion forums, wikis and blogs can enable learners to actively construct knowledge. Because existing knowledge schemata are explicitly acknowledged as a starting point for new learning, constructivist approaches tend to validate individual and cultural differences and diversity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pagán|first=Brian|date=2006-02-28|title=Positive Contributions of Constructivism to Educational Design|url=http://ejop.psychopen.eu/article/view/318|journal=Europe's Journal of Psychology|volume=2|issue=1|doi=10.5964/ejop.v2i1.318|issn=1841-0413|doi-access=free}}</ref>

A contrast between the traditional classroom and the constructivist classroom is illustrated below:

==Assessment==

The Traditional Classroom

*Begins with parts of the whole–Emphasizes basic skills

*Strict adherence to fixed curriculum

*Textbooks and workbooks

*Instructor gives/students receive

*Instructor assumes directive, authoritative role

*Assessment via testing / correct answers

*Knowledge is inert

*Students work individually

Traditional testing is only one facet of constructivist assessment of student success. Assessment also consists of personal, thorough interpretation of students' performance in the context of what their out-of-school life.

The constructivist Classroom

Non-traditional constructivist assessment strategies include:

*Begin with the whole – expanding to parts

*Pursuit of student questions / interests

*Primary Sources / manipulative materials

*Learning is interaction – building on what students already know

*Instructor interacts / negotiates with students

*Assessment via student works, observations, points of view, tests. Process is as important as product

*Knowledge is dynamic / change with experiences

*Students work in groups Source : Thirteen Ed Online (2004)

* '''Oral discussions''': The teacher presents students with a "focus" question and allows an open discussion on the topic.

Because existing knowledge schemata are explicitly acknowledged as a starting point for new learning, constructivist approaches tend to validate individual and cultural differences and diversity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pagán|first=Brian|date=2006-02-28|title=Positive Contributions of Constructivism to Educational Design|url=http://ejop.psychopen.eu/article/view/318|journal=Europe's Journal of Psychology|volume=2|issue=1|doi=10.5964/ejop.v2i1.318|issn=1841-0413}}</ref>

* '''KWL(H) Chart''' (What we know, What we want to know, What we have learned, How we know it). This technique can be used throughout the course of study for a particular topic, but is also a good assessment technique as it shows the teacher the progress of the student throughout the course of study.

* '''Mind Mapping''': In this activity, students list and categorize the concepts and ideas relating to a topic.

===Role of teachers===

* '''Hands-on activities''': These encourage students to manipulate their environments or a particular learning tool. Teachers can use a checklist and observation to assess student success with the particular material.

In the constructivist classroom, the teacher's role is to prompt and facilitate discussion. Thus, the teacher's main focus should be on guiding students by asking questions that will lead them to develop their own conclusions on the subject. Parker J. Palmer (1997) suggests that good teachers join self, subject, and students in the fabric of life because they teach from an integral and undivided self, they manifest in their own lives, and evoke in their students, a capacity for connectedness".

* '''Pre-testing''': This allows a teacher to determine what knowledge students bring to a new topic and thus will be helpful in directing the course of study.<ref name="templeedu"/>

David Jonassen identified three major roles for facilitators to support students in constructivist learning environments:

* Modeling

* [[Coaching]]

* [[Instructional scaffolding|Scaffolding]]<ref name="Jonassen">[http://www.moe.gov.sg/edumall/mpite/edtech/papers/d1.pdf Jonassen, D. H. (1999).] Constructing learning environments on the web: Engaging students in meaningful learning. ''EdTech 99: Educational Technology Conference and Exhibition 1999: Thinking Schools, Learning Nation.'' {{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

A brief description of the Jonassen major roles are:

'''Modeling''' – Jonassen describes Modeling as the most commonly used instructional strategy in CLEs. Two types of modeling exist: behavioural modeling of the overt performance and cognitive modeling of the covert cognitive processes. Behavioural modeling in Constructivist Learning Environments demonstrates how to perform the activities identified in the activity structure. Cognitive modeling articulates the reasoning (reflection-in-action) that learners should use while engaged in the activities.

'''Coaching''' – For Jonassen the role of coach is complex and inexact. She acknowledges that a good coach motivates learners, analyzes their performance, provides feedback and advice on the performance and how to learn about how to perform, and provokes reflection and articulation of what was learned. Moreover, she posits that coaching may be solicited by the learner. Students seeking help might press a "How am I Doing?" button. Or coaching may be unsolicited, when the coach observes the performance and provides encouragement, diagnosis, directions, and feedback. Coaching naturally and necessarily involves responses that are situated in the learner's task performance (Laffey, Tupper, Musser, & Wedman, 1997).

'''Scaffolding''' - Scaffolding is a more systemic approach to supporting the learner, focusing on the task, the environment, the teacher, and the learner. Scaffolding provides temporary frameworks to support learning and student performance beyond their capacities. The concept of scaffolding represents any kind of support for cognitive activity that is provided by an adult when the child and adult are performing the task together (Wood & Middleton, 1975).

===Constructivist learning environments (CLEs)===

Jonassen has proposed a model for developing constructivist learning environments (CLEs) around a specific learning goal. This goal may take one of several forms, from least to most complex:

* Question or issue

* Case study

* Long-term Project

* Problem (multiple cases and projects integrated at the curriculum level)

Jonassen recommends making the learning goals engaging and relevant but not overly structured.

In CLEs, learning is driven by the problem to be solved; students learn content and theory in order to solve the problem. This is different from traditional objectivist teaching where the theory would be presented first and problems would be used afterwards to practice theory.

Depending on students' prior experiences, related cases and scaffolding may be necessary for support. Instructors also need to provide an authentic context for tasks, plus information resources, cognitive tools, and collaborative tools.<ref name="Jonassen" />

===Assessment===

Traditionally, assessment in the classrooms is based on testing. In this style, it is important for the student to produce the correct answers. However, in constructivist teaching, the process of gaining knowledge is viewed as being just as important as the product. Thus, assessment is based not only on tests, but also on observation of the student, the student's work, and the student's points of view.<ref name="thirteenorg"/> Some assessment strategies include:

*Oral discussions. The teacher presents students with a "focus" question and allows an open discussion on the topic.

*KWL(H) Chart (What we know, What we want to know, What we have learned, How we know it). This technique can be used throughout the course of study for a particular topic, but is also a good assessment technique as it shows the teacher the progress of the student throughout the course of study.

*Mind Mapping. In this activity, students list and categorize the concepts and ideas relating to a topic.

*Hands-on activities. These encourage students to manipulate their environments or a particular learning tool. Teachers can use a checklist and observation to assess student success with the particular material.

*Pre-testing. This allows a teacher to determine what knowledge students bring to a new topic and thus will be helpful in directing the course of study.<ref name="templeedu"/>

==An example of a lesson taught with a Constructivist background;-

A good example of a lesson being taught in a constructivist way, with the teacher mediating learning rather than directly teaching the class is shown by the example of [[Michael Faraday|Faraday]]'s [[The Chemical History of a Candle|candle]]. There are various forms of this lesson, but all are developed from the Christmas lectures Faraday gave on the functioning of candles. In open constructivist lessons using these lectures as a basis, students are encouraged to discover for themselves how candles work. They do this first by making simple observations, from which they later build ideas and hypotheses which they then go on to test. The teacher acts to encourage this learning. If successful, students can use this lesson to understand the components of combustion, an important chemistry topic.<ref name="faraday">* {{cite journal|

doi=10.1021/ed085p59|

author=[http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/ed085p59 Walker, M et al.]|

year=2008|

title= A bright spark: open teaching of science using Faraday's lectures on candles|

journal= Journal of Chemical Education|

volume=85|

issue=1|

pages=59–63.}}</ref>

==Constructivism for adults==

Constructivist philosophy has a long history of application in education programs for young children, but is used less frequently in adult learning environments. As humans develop, there are qualitative changes in their ability to think logically about experiences, but the processes by which learning occurs, [[Jean Piaget|cognitive adaptation]] and [[Vygotsky|social mediation]], are believed to be continuous or remain the same throughout the life.<ref>Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The Psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge: MA, Harvard University Press.</ref> At the heart of constructivist philosophy is the belief that knowledge is not given but gained through real experiences that have purpose and meaning to the learner, and the exchange of perspectives about the experience with others<ref>Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The Psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books, Inc.</ref> ([[Jean Piaget|Piaget]] & Inhelder, 1969; [[Vygotsky]],1978).

Learning environments for adults based on constructivist philosophy include opportunities for students to make meaningful connections between new material and previous experience, through discovery. One of the simplest ways to do this is asking [[Closed-ended question|open-ended questions]]. Open-ended questions such as "Tell me about a time when... ." or "How might this information be useful to you?" cause learners to think about how new information may relate to their own experience. Student responses to such questions are opportunities for experiencing the perspectives of others. For these questions to be effective it is critical that instructors focus on teaching content that is useful for participants. The importance of using these types of strategies with adults contributes to what<ref>Bain, Ken. (2004). What the Best College Teachers Do. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref> Bain(2004 p.&nbsp;4) noted as critical learning environments where instructors "embed" the skills they are teaching in "authentic tasks that will arouse curiosity, challenge students to rethink assumptions and examine their mental modes of reality". Mezirow J. (1997) who asserts that learners need to practice in recognizing frames of reference and using their imaginations to redefine problems from different perspectives. (pg. 10) I made the connection by also adding the point that "to promote discovery learning, the educator often reframes learner questions in terms of the learner's current level of understanding. Learning contracts, group projects, role play, case studies, and simulations are classroom methods associated with transformative education." Such approaches emphasize that learning is not an "all or nothing" process but that students learn the new information that is presented to them by building upon knowledge that they already possess. It is therefore important that teachers constantly assess the knowledge their students have gained to make sure that the students' perceptions of the new knowledge are what the teacher had intended. Teachers will find that since the students build upon already existing knowledge, when they are called upon to retrieve the new information, they may make errors. It is known as reconstruction error when we fill in the gaps of our understanding with logical, though incorrect, thoughts. Teachers need to catch and try to correct these errors, though it is inevitable that some reconstruction error will continue to occur because of our innate retrieval limitations.

In most pedagogies based on constructivism, the teacher's role is not only to observe and assess but to also engage with the students while they are completing activities, wondering aloud and posing questions to the students for promotion of [[reasoning]] (DeVries et al., 2002). (ex: I wonder why the water does not spill over the edge of the full cup?) Teachers also intervene when there are conflicts that arise; however, they simply facilitate the students' resolutions and [[Self-control|self-regulation]], with an emphasis on the conflict being the students' and that they must figure things out for themselves. For example, promotion of literacy is accomplished by integrating the need to read and write throughout individual activities within print-rich classrooms. The teacher, after reading a story, encourages the students to write or draw stories of their own, or by having the students reenact a story that they may know well, both activities encourage the students to ''conceive themselves'' as reader and writers.

==Arguments against constructivist teaching techniques==

{{Main article|Constructivism (learningphilosophy theoryof education)}}

Critics have voiced the following arguments against constructivist based teaching instruction:

Line 111 ⟶ 43:

* One possible deterrent for this teaching method is that, due to the emphasis on group work, the ideas of the more active students may dominate the group's conclusions.<ref name="thirteenorg"/>

While proponents of constructivism argue that constructivist students perform better than their peers when tested on higher-order reasoning, the critics of constructivism argue that this teaching technique forces students to "[[Reinventing the wheel|reinvent the wheel]]". Supporters counter that "Students do not reinvent the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand how it turns, how it functions."<ref name="thirteenorg"/> Proponents argue that students &mdash; especially [[elementary school]]-aged children &mdash; are naturally curious about the world, and giving them the tools to explore it in a guided manner will serve to give them a stronger understanding of it.<ref name="thirteenorg"/>

Mayer (2004)<ref name="Mayer">[http://projects.ict.usc.edu/itw/vtt/MayerThreeStrikesAP04.pdf Should There Be a Three-Strikes Rule Against Pure Discovery Learning?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215142158/http://projects.ict.usc.edu/itw/vtt/MayerThreeStrikesAP04.pdf |date=2015-02-15 }}, Mayer, 2004, ''American Psychologist, 59''(1), 14–19</ref> developed a literature review spanning fifty years and concluded "The research in this brief review shows that the formula constructivism = hands-on activity is a formula for educational disaster." His argument is that [[active learning]] is often suggested by those subscribing to this philosophy. In developing this instruction these educators produce materials that require learning to be behaviorally active and not be "cognitively active".<ref name="Mayer" /> That is, although they are engaged in activity, they may not be learning (Sweller, 1988). Mayer recommends using guided discovery, a mix of direct instruction and hands-on activity, rather than pure discovery: "In many ways, guided discovery appears to offer the best method for promoting constructivist learning."<ref name="Mayer" />

Kirchner et al. (2006) agree with the basic premise of constructivism, that learners construct knowledge, but are concerned with the instructional design recommendations of this theoretical framework. "The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow." (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark, 2006, p.&nbsp;78). Specifically, they say instructors often design unguided instruction that relies on the learner to "discover or construct essential information for themselves" (Kirchner et al., 2006, p75).

Line 126 ⟶ 58:

=== Guided instruction ===

A learning approach in which the educator uses strategically placed prompts, cues, questions, direct explanations, and modeling to guide student thinking and facilitate an increased responsibility for the completion of a task. (<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fisher &|first=Douglas Frey,|title=Guided instruction : how to develop confident and successful learners |date=2010 |publisher=Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) |others=Nancy Frey |isbn=978-1-4166-1173-8 |___location=Alexandria, Va. |oclc=693781086}}</ref>

=== Problem-based learning ===

Line 140 ⟶ 72:

=== Cooperative learning ===

A variety of educational approaches focusing on individuals working together to achieve a specific learning outcome (Hsiung, 2012).

==== Reciprocal Peer Teaching ====

Line 147 ⟶ 79:

==== Jigsaw ====

{{main article|Jigsaw (teaching technique)}}

A highly structured cooperative learning approach which is implemented in four stages: introduction, focused exploration, reporting and re-shaping, and integration and evaluation. In the introduction stage, the class is divided into heterogeneous 'home' groups consisting of between three and seven students (Karacop & Doymus, 2013). Upon establishing the 'home' groups, the teacher will discuss the subtopics pertaining to the subject matter (Karacop & Doymus, 2013). In the focused exploration stage, each student within all 'home' groups selects one of the subtopics (Karacop & Doymus, 2013). Students from each 'home' group that have selected the same subtopic will form a 'jigsaw' group (Karacop & Doymus, 2013). It is in the 'jigsaw' group that students will explore the material pertaining to the subtopic and will prepare for teaching it to their 'home' group, the reporting and re-shaping stage (Karacop & Doymus, 2013). The approach concludes in the fourth stage, integration and evaluation, wherein each of the 'home' groups combine the learning of each subtopic together to create the completed piece of work (<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karacop &|first1=Ataman |last2=Doymus, |first2=Kemal |date=April 2013) |title=Effects of Jigsaw Cooperative Learning and Animation Techniques on Students' Understanding of Chemical Bonding and Their Conceptions of the Particulate Nature of Matter |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10956-012-9385-9 |journal=Journal of Science Education and Technology |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=186–203 |doi=10.1007/s10956-012-9385-9 |issn=1059-0145|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==See also==

Line 158 ⟶ 90:

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

* {{cite journal|author1=Kirschner, P. A. |author2=Sweller, J. |author3= Clark, R. E. |lastname-authorlist-ampstyle=yesamp |

year=2006|

title= Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching|

Line 165 ⟶ 97:

issue=2|

pages=75–86|

doi= 10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1|hdl=1820/8951 |s2cid=17067829 |url=http://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/16899 |hdl-access=free}}

* {{cite journal|

author=Mayer, R.|

Line 175 ⟶ 107:

pages=14–19|

doi= 10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.14|

pmid=14736316}}|

citeseerx=10.1.1.372.2476|

s2cid=1129364}}

{{refend}}

* Laffey, J., Tupper, T., Musser, D., & Wedman, J. (1997). A computer-mediated support system for project-based learning. Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.

* Taber, K. S. (2011). Constructivism as educational theory: Contingency in learning, and optimally guided instruction. In J. Hassaskhah (Ed.), Educational Theory (pp.&nbsp;39–61). New York: Nova. Available from https://camtools.cam.ac.uk/wiki/eclipse/Constructivism.html.

* Wood, & Middleton, (1975). A study of assisted problem solving. British Journal of Psychology, 66(2), 181–191.

* Wood, & Middleton, (1975). A study of assisted problem solving. British Journal of Psychology, 66(2), 181-191.

* Thirteen Ed Online (2004). Constructivism as a paradigm for teaching and learning. http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html

* Durmus, Y. T. (2016). Effective Learning Environment Characteristics as a requirement of Constructivist Curricula: Teachers' Needs and School Principals' Views . International Journal of Instruction, 9(2).

* Durmus, Y. T. (2016). Effective Learning Environment Characteristics as a requirement of Constructivist Curricula: Teachers’ Needs and School Principals’ Views . International Journal of Instruction, 9(2).

* Cross, K. P. (1987). Teaching for learning. AAHE Bulletin, 39(8).

* Winkler, T., Kritzenberger, H., & Herczeg, M. (2002). Mixed Reality Environments as Collaborative and Constructive Learning Spaces for Elementary School Children.

Line 198 ⟶ 126:

*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051116144735/http://www.odu.edu/educ/act/ Association for Constructivist Teaching]

*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060103103428/http://www.ed.psu.edu/ci/Journals/97pap32.htm Constructivist Teaching Practices: Perceptions of Teachers and Students]

*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061207025915/http://pirate.shu.edu/~muellemf/3006/Constructivist%20Learning%20&%26%20Teaching.htm Constructivist Learning and Teaching]

*[http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index_sub2.html Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning]

*[http://nzic.org.nz/chemed-nz/issue-archive/ChemEdNZ_Nov2010_Scerri.pdf A follow up critique of constructivism by Eric Scerri]

Line 204 ⟶ 132:

{{DEFAULTSORT:Constructivist Teaching Methods}}

[[Category:Learning theory (education)]]

[[Category:EducationalConstructivism psychology(psychological school)]]

[[Category:Constructivism]]