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{{Short description|Programming paradigm that unifies the development of different tiers in a single compilation unit}}
'''Multitier programming''' (or '''tierless programming''') is a [[programming paradigm]] for [[distributed computing|distributed software]], which typically follows a [[multitier architecture]], physically separating different functional aspects of the software into different ''tiers'' (e.g., the client, the server and the database in a Web application.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hull|first1=Richard|last2=Thiemann|first2=Peter|last3=Wadler|first3=Philip|date=2007|title=07051 Working Group Outcomes – Programming Paradigms for the Web: Web Programming and Web Services|url=http://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2007/1127|journal=Programming Paradigms for the Web: Web Programming and Web Services|series=Dagstuhl Seminar Proceedings|___location=Dagstuhl, Germany|publisher=Internationales Begegnungs- und Forschungszentrum für Informatik (IBFI)|volume=07051}}</ref>). Multitier programming allows functionalities that span multiple of such tiers to be developed in a single compilation unit using a single [[programming language]]. Without multitier programming, tiers are developed using different languages, e.g., [[JavaScript]] for the Web client, [[PHP]] for the Web server and [[SQL]] for the database.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weisenburger|first1=Pascal|last2=Wirth|first2=Johannes|last3=Salvaneschi|first3=Guido|title=A Survey of Multitier Programming|journal=ACM Comput. Surv.|date=2020|volume=53|issue=4|pages=81:1–81:35|doi=10.1145/3397495}}</ref> Multitier programming is often integrated into [[general-purpose language]]s by extending them with support for distribution.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Caldwell|first1=Sam |editor1-last=Miller|editor1-first=Heather|title=Programming Models for Distributed Computing|date=2016|chapter=General Purpose Languages Extended for Distribution|chapter-url=http://dist-prog-book.com/chapter/5/langs-extended-for-dist.html}}</ref>▼
▲'''Multitier programming''' (or '''tierless programming''') is a [[programming paradigm]] for [[distributed computing|distributed software]], which typically follows a [[multitier architecture]], physically separating different functional aspects of the software into different ''tiers'' (e.g., the client, the server and the database in a Web application
Concepts from multitier programming were pioneered by the [[Hop (software)|Hop]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Serrano|first=Manuel|date=2012|title=Multitier programming in Hop.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/cacm/SerranoB12.html|journal=Commun. ACM|volume=55|issue=8|pages=53–59|doi=10.1145/2240236.2240253|s2cid=2152326}}</ref> and [[Links (programming language)|Links]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Cooper|first=Ezra|date=2006|title=Links: Web Programming Without Tiers.|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science|volume=4709|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/fmco/CooperLWY06.html|pages=266–296|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-74792-5_12|isbn=978-3-540-74791-8}}</ref> languages▼
and have found industrial adoption in solutions such as [[Ocsigen]]<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Balat|first=Vincent|date=2006|title=Ocsigen: typing web interaction with objective Caml.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/ml/Balat06.html|pages=84–94|doi=10.1145/1159876.1159889|s2cid=6131454}}</ref>, [[Opa (programming language)|Opa]]<ref name=":3">Rajchenbach-Teller, D., & Sinot, Franois-R&#39;egis. (2010). Opa: Language support for a sane, safe and secure web. ''Proceedings of the OWASP AppSec Research'', ''2010''(1).</ref>, [[WebSharper]]<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Bjornson|first1=Joel|last2=Tayanovskyy|first2=Anton|last3=Granicz|first3=Adam|date=2010|title=Composing Reactive GUIs in F# Using WebSharper|journal=Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Implementation and Application of Functional Languages|page=49|___location=Berlin, Heidelberg|publisher=Springer-Verlag|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-24276-2_13}}</ref>, [[Meteor (web framework)|Meteor]]<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Strack, Isaac|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/823718999|title=Getting started with Meteor JavaScript framework|date=January 2012|isbn=978-1-78216-083-0|___location=Birmingham|oclc=823718999}}</ref> or [[Google Web Toolkit|GWT]]<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Kereki, Federico, 1960-|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/606556208|title=Essential GWT: building for the web with Google Web toolkit 2|date=2011|publisher=Addison-Wesley|isbn=978-0-321-70563-1|___location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|oclc=606556208}}</ref>▼
▲Concepts from multitier programming were pioneered by the [[Hop (software)|Hop]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Serrano|first=Manuel|date=2012|title=Multitier programming in Hop.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/cacm/SerranoB12.html|journal=Commun. ACM|volume=55|issue=8|pages=53–59|doi=10.1145/2240236.2240253|s2cid=2152326|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and [[Links (programming language)|Links]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Cooper|first=Ezra|
▲and have found industrial adoption in solutions such as
Multitier programming provides a ''global view'' on the distributed system. This aspect has been shown similar to other programming paradigms such as [[choreographic programming]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Giallorenzo |first1=Saverio |last2=Montesi |first2=Fabrizio |last3=Peressotti |first3=Marco |last4=Richter |first4=David |last5=Salvaneschi |first5=Guido |last6=Weisenburger |first6=Pascal |date=2021 |editor-last=Møller |editor-first=Anders |editor2-last=Sridharan |editor2-first=Manu |title=Multiparty Languages: The Choreographic and Multitier Cases |url=https://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2021/14065 |journal=35th European Conference on Object-Oriented Programming (ECOOP 2021) |series=Leibniz International Proceedings in Informatics (LIPIcs) |___location=Dagstuhl, Germany |publisher=Schloss Dagstuhl – Leibniz-Zentrum für Informatik |volume=194 |pages=22:1–22:27 |doi=10.4230/LIPIcs.ECOOP.2021.22 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-3-95977-190-0|s2cid=235748561 }}</ref> [[macroprogramming]],<ref name="Casadei 2023">{{cite journal | last=Casadei | first=Roberto | title=Macroprogramming: Concepts, State of the Art, and Opportunities of Macroscopic Behaviour Modelling | journal=ACM Computing Surveys | publisher=Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) | date=2023-01-11 | volume=55 | issue=13s | pages=1–37 | issn=0360-0300 | doi=10.1145/3579353 | s2cid=245837830 | doi-access=free | arxiv=2201.03473 }}</ref> and [[aggregate computing]].<ref name="Beal Pianini Viroli 2015 pp. 22–30">{{cite journal | last1=Beal | first1=Jacob | last2=Pianini | first2=Danilo | last3=Viroli | first3=Mirko | title=Aggregate Programming for the Internet of Things | journal=Computer | publisher=Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) | volume=48 | issue=9 | year=2015 | issn=0018-9162 | doi=10.1109/mc.2015.261 | pages=22–30| hdl=11585/520779 | s2cid=26413 | hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Audrito |first1=Giorgio |last2=Casadei |first2=Roberto |last3=Damiani |first3=Ferruccio |last4=Salvaneschi |first4=Guido |last5=Viroli |first5=Mirko |date=2022 |editor-last=Ali |editor-first=Karim |editor2-last=Vitek |editor2-first=Jan |title=Functional Programming for Distributed Systems with XC |url=https://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2022/16248 |journal=36th European Conference on Object-Oriented Programming (ECOOP 2022) |series=Leibniz International Proceedings in Informatics (LIPIcs) |___location=Dagstuhl, Germany |publisher=Schloss Dagstuhl – Leibniz-Zentrum für Informatik |volume=222 |pages=20:1–20:28 |doi=10.4230/LIPIcs.ECOOP.2022.20 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-3-95977-225-9|s2cid=249961384 }}</ref>
== Context ==
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ScalaLoci is a language that targets generic distributed systems rather than the Web only, i.e., it is not restricted to a client–server architecture. To this end, ScalaLoci supports peer types to encode the different tiers at the [[Type system|type level]]. Placement types are used to assign locations to data and computations. ScalaLoci supports multitier [[Functional reactive programming|reactives]] – language abstractions for reactive programming that are placed on specific locations – for composing data flows cross different peers.
The application first defines an input field (Line 11) using the ScalaTags library.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ScalaTags|url=https://com-lihaoyi.github.io/scalatags/|website=www.lihaoyi.com|access-date=2021-10-11}}</ref>
== List of multitier programming languages ==
* Hop/Hop.js<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Serrano|first=Manuel|date=2012|title=Multitier programming in Hop.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/cacm/SerranoB12.html|journal=Commun. ACM|volume=55|issue=8|pages=53–59|doi=10.1145/2240236.2240253|s2cid=2152326|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Serrano|first=Manuel|date=2006|title=Hop: a language for programming the web 2.0.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/oopsla/SerranoGL06.html|pages=975–985|doi=10.1145/1176617.1176756|s2cid=14306230|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Serrano|first=Manuel|
* Links<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Cooper|first=Ezra|
*Ur/Web<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chlipala|first=Adam|date=2015|title=Ur/Web: A Simple Model for Programming the Web.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/popl/Chlipala15.html|pages=153–165|doi=10.1145/2676726.2677004|s2cid=9440677|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
*Eliom/Ocsigen<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Balat|first=Vincent|date=2006|title=Ocsigen: typing web interaction with objective Caml.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/ml/Balat06.html|pages=84–94|doi=10.1145/1159876.1159889|s2cid=6131454|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Radanne|first=Gabriel|
*ScalaLoci<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weisenburger|first=Pascal|date=2018|title=Distributed system development with ScalaLoci.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/pacmpl/WeisenburgerKS18.html|journal=Proc. ACM Program. Lang.|volume=2|issue=OOPSLA|pages=129:1–129:30|doi=10.1145/3276499|s2cid=53090153|doi-access=free}}</ref>
*StiP.js<ref>{{Cite book|last=Philips|first=Laure|
*Scala Multi-Tier FRP<ref>{{Cite book|last=Reynders|first=Bob|
*Opa<ref name=":3">Rajchenbach-Teller, D., & Sinot, Franois-
*AmbientTalk/R<ref>{{Cite book|last=Carreton|first=Andoni Lombide|
*ML5<ref>{{Cite book|last=VII|first=Tom Murphy|
*WebSharper<ref name=":4">{{Cite
*Haste<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ekblad|first1=Anton|last2=Claessen|first2=Koen|date=2015-05-11|title=A seamless, client-centric programming model for type safe web applications|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2775050.2633367|journal=ACM SIGPLAN Notices|volume=49|issue=12|pages=79–89|doi=10.1145/2775050.2633367|issn=0362-1340|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
*Fun<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fun (a programming language for the realtime web)|url=http://marcuswest.in/essays/fun-intro/|website=marcuswest.in|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref>
*Koka<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leijen|first=Daan|date=2014|title=Koka: Programming with Row Polymorphic Effect Types.|journal=Electronic Proceedings in Theoretical Computer Science|volume=153|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/corr/Leijen14.html|pages=100–126|doi=10.4204/EPTCS.153.8|arxiv=1406.2061|s2cid=14902937}}</ref>
*Multi-Tier Calculus<ref>{{Cite book|last=Neubauer|first=Matthias|
*Swift<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=ChongStephen|last2=LiuJed|last3=C|first3=MyersAndrew|last4=QiXin|last5=VikramK|last6=ZhengLantian|last7=ZhengXin|date=2007-10-14|title=Secure web applications via automatic partitioning|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1323293.1294265|journal=ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review|volume=41|issue=6|pages=31–44|language=EN|doi=10.1145/1323293.1294265|hdl=1813/5769 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
*Volta<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Manolescu|first=Dragos|date=2008|title=Volta: Developing Distributed Applications by Recompiling.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/software/ManolescuBL08.html|journal=IEEE Software|volume=25|issue=5|pages=53–59|doi=10.1109/MS.2008.131|s2cid=24360031|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
*GWT<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Kereki, Federico, 1960-
*Meteor<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Strack, Isaac
*J-Orchestra<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tilevich|first=Eli|
*Hiphop<ref>{{Cite
*Distributed Orc<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thywissen|first=John A.|date=2016|title=Implicitly Distributing Pervasively Concurrent Programs: Extended abstract.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/ecoop/ThywissenPC16.html|pages=1|doi=10.1145/2957319.2957370|s2cid=6124391|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
*Jif/split<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zdancewic|first=Steve|date=2002|title=Secure program partitioning.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/tocs/ZdancewicZNM02.html|journal=ACM Trans. Comput. Syst.|volume=20|issue=3|pages=283–328|doi=10.1145/566340.566343|s2cid=1776939|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
*Fission<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guha|first1=Arjun|last2=Jeannin|first2=Jean-Baptiste|last3=Nigam|first3=Rachit|last4=Tangen|first4=Jane|last5=Shambaugh|first5=Rian|date=2017|editor-last=Lerner|editor-first=Benjamin S.|editor2-last=Bodík|editor2-first=Rastislav|editor3-last=Krishnamurthi|editor3-first=Shriram|title=Fission: Secure Dynamic Code-Splitting for JavaScript|url=http://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2017/7124|journal=2nd Summit on Advances in Programming Languages (SNAPL 2017)|series=Leibniz International Proceedings in Informatics (LIPIcs)|___location=Dagstuhl, Germany|publisher=Schloss Dagstuhl–Leibniz-Zentrum fuer Informatik|volume=71|pages=5:1–5:13|doi=10.4230/LIPIcs.SNAPL.2017.5|doi-access=free |isbn=978-3-95977-032-3}}</ref>
*SIF<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chong|first=Stephen|date=2007|title=SIF: Enforcing Confidentiality and Integrity in Web Applications.|url=https://www.usenix.org/conference/16th-usenix-security-symposium/sif-enforcing-confidentiality-and-integrity-web}}</ref>
*WebDSL<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Groenewegen|first=Danny M.|date=2008|title=WebDSL: a ___domain-specific language for dynamic web applications.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/oopsla/GroenewegenHKV08.html|pages=779–780|doi=10.1145/1449814.1449858|s2cid=8073129|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
*Acute<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sewell|first=Peter|date=2005|title=Acute: high-level programming language design for distributed computation.|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/icfp/SewellLWNAHV05.html|pages=15–26|doi=10.1145/1086365.1086370|s2cid=1308126|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
*Mobl<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hemel|first=Zef|
*High-Level Abstractions for Web Programming<ref>{{Cite book|last=Richard-Foy|first=Julien|
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Programming paradigms navbox}}
[[Category:Programming paradigms]]
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