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Line 1: {{Short description\|Programming paradigm that unifies the development of different tiers in a single compilation unit}} {{Programming paradigms}}▼ '''Multitier programming''' (or '''tierless programming''') is a [[programming paradigm]] for [[distributed computing\|distributed software]], which typically follows a [[multitier architecture]], physically separating different functional aspects of the software into different ''tiers'' (e.g., the client, the server and the database in a Web application<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Hull\|first1=Richard\|last2=Thiemann\|first2=Peter\|last3=Wadler\|first3=Philip\|date=2007\|title=07051 Working Group Outcomes – Programming Paradigms for the Web: Web Programming and Web Services\|url=http://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2007/1127\|journal=Programming Paradigms for the Web: Web Programming and Web Services\|series=Dagstuhl Seminar Proceedings\|___location=Dagstuhl, Germany\|publisher=Internationales Begegnungs- und Forschungszentrum für Informatik (IBFI)\|volume=07051}}</ref>). Multitier programming allows functionalities that span multiple of such tiers to be developed in a single compilation unit using a single [[programming language]]. Without multitier programming, tiers are developed using different languages, e.g., [[JavaScript]] for the Web client, [[PHP]] for the Web server and [[SQL]] for the database.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Weisenburger\|first1=Pascal\|last2=Wirth\|first2=Johannes\|last3=Salvaneschi\|first3=Guido\|title=A Survey of Multitier Programming\|journal=ACM Comput. Surv.\|date=2020\|volume=53\|issue=4\|pages=81:1–81:35\|doi=10.1145/3397495\|s2cid=218517772 \|url=http://www.alexandria.unisg.ch/267228/1/2020_A-Survey-of-Multitier-Programming.pdf }}</ref> Multitier programming is often integrated into [[general-purpose language]]s by extending them with support for distribution.<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Caldwell\|first1=Sam \|editor1-last=Miller\|editor1-first=Heather\|title=Programming Models for Distributed Computing\|date=2016\|chapter=General Purpose Languages Extended for Distribution\|chapter-url=http://dist-prog-book.com/chapter/5/langs-extended-for-dist.html}}</ref> Concepts from multitier programming were pioneered by the [[Hop (software)\|Hop]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal\|last=Serrano\|first=Manuel\|date=2012\|title=Multitier programming in Hop.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/cacm/SerranoB12.html\|journal=Commun. ACM\|volume=55\|issue=8\|pages=53–59\|doi=10.1145/2240236.2240253\|s2cid=2152326\|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and [[Links (programming language)\|Links]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite book\|last=Cooper\|first=Ezra\|~~date~~title=~~2006~~Formal Methods for Components and Objects \|~~title~~chapter=Links: Web Programming Without Tiers. \|date=2006\|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science\|volume=4709\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/fmco/CooperLWY06.html\|pages=266–296\|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-74792-5_12\|hdl=20.500.11820/ef5f100a-0366-4b85-8ef1-622fd7fbb53a \|isbn=978-3-540-74791-8\|s2cid=16397220 }}</ref> languages and have found industrial adoption in solutions such as Ocsigen,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal\|last=Balat\|first=Vincent\|date=2006\|title=Ocsigen: typing web interaction with objective Caml.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/ml/Balat06.html\|pages=84–94\|doi=10.1145/1159876.1159889\|s2cid=6131454\|url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[Opa (programming language)\|Opa]],<ref name=":3">Rajchenbach-Teller, D., & Sinot, Franois-Régis. (2010). Opa: Language support for a sane, safe and secure web. ''Proceedings of the OWASP AppSec Research'', ''2010''(1).</ref> [[WebSharper]],<ref name=":4">{{Cite ~~journal~~book\|last1=Bjornson\|first1=Joel\|last2=Tayanovskyy\|first2=Anton\|last3=Granicz\|first3=Adam\|~~date~~title=~~2010~~Implementation and Application of Functional Languages \|~~title~~chapter=Composing Reactive GUIs in F# Using WebSharper \|~~journal~~date=~~Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Implementation and Application of Functional Languages~~2010\|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science \|volume=6647 \|page=49\|___location=Berlin, Heidelberg\|publisher=Springer-Verlag\|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-24276-2_13\|isbn=978-3-642-24275-5 }}</ref> [[Meteor (web framework)\|Meteor]]<ref name=":5">{{Cite book\|last=Strack, Isaac~~\|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/823718999~~\|title=Getting started with Meteor JavaScript framework\|date=January 2012\|isbn=978-1-78216-083-0\|___location=Birmingham\|oclc=823718999}}</ref> or [[Google Web Toolkit\|GWT]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite book\|last=Kereki, Federico, 1960-~~\|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/606556208~~\|title=Essential GWT: building for the web with Google Web toolkit 2\|date=2011\|publisher=Addison-Wesley\|isbn=978-0-321-70563-1\|___location=Upper Saddle River, NJ\|oclc=606556208}}</ref> Multitier programming is provides a ''global view'' on the distributed system. This aspect has been shown similar to other programming paradigms such as [[choreographic programming]],<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Giallorenzo \|first1=Saverio \|last2=Montesi \|first2=Fabrizio \|last3=Peressotti \|first3=Marco \|last4=Richter \|first4=David \|last5=Salvaneschi \|first5=Guido \|last6=Weisenburger \|first6=Pascal \|date=2021 \|editor-last=Møller \|editor-first=Anders \|editor2-last=Sridharan \|editor2-first=Manu \|title=Multiparty Languages: The Choreographic and Multitier Cases \|url=https://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2021/14065 \|journal=35th European Conference on Object-Oriented Programming (ECOOP 2021) \|series=Leibniz International Proceedings in Informatics (LIPIcs) \|___location=Dagstuhl, Germany \|publisher=Schloss Dagstuhl – Leibniz-Zentrum für Informatik \|volume=194 \|pages=22:1–22:27 \|doi=10.4230/LIPIcs.ECOOP.2021.22 \|doi-access=free \|isbn=978-3-95977-190-0\|s2cid=235748561 }}</ref> [[macroprogramming]],<ref name="Casadei 2023">{{cite journal \| last=Casadei \| first=Roberto \| title=Macroprogramming: Concepts, State of the Art, and Opportunities of Macroscopic Behaviour Modelling \| journal=ACM Computing Surveys \| publisher=Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) \| date=2023-01-11 \| volume=55 \| issue=13s \| pages=1–37 \| issn=0360-0300 \| doi=10.1145/3579353 \| ~~page~~s2cid=245837830 \| doi-access=free \| arxiv=2201.03473 }}</ref> and [[aggregate computing]].<ref name="Beal Pianini Viroli 2015 pp. 22–30">{{cite journal \| ~~last~~last1=Beal \| ~~first~~first1=Jacob \| last2=Pianini \| first2=Danilo \| last3=Viroli \| first3=Mirko \| title=Aggregate Programming for the Internet of Things \| journal=Computer \| publisher=Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) \| volume=48 \| issue=9 \| year=2015 \| issn=0018-9162 \| doi=10.1109/mc.2015.261 \| pages=22–30\| hdl=11585/520779 \| s2cid=26413 \| hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Audrito \|first1=Giorgio \|last2=Casadei \|first2=Roberto \|last3=Damiani \|first3=Ferruccio \|last4=Salvaneschi \|first4=Guido \|last5=Viroli \|first5=Mirko \|date=2022 \|editor-last=Ali \|editor-first=Karim \|editor2-last=Vitek \|editor2-first=Jan \|title=Functional Programming for Distributed Systems with XC \|url=https://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2022/16248 \|journal=36th European Conference on Object-Oriented Programming (ECOOP 2022) \|series=Leibniz International Proceedings in Informatics (LIPIcs) \|___location=Dagstuhl, Germany \|publisher=Schloss Dagstuhl – Leibniz-Zentrum für Informatik \|volume=222 \|pages=20:1–20:28 \|doi=10.4230/LIPIcs.ECOOP.2022.20 \|doi-access=free \|isbn=978-3-95977-225-9\|s2cid=249961384 }}</ref> == Context == Line 99 ⟶ 98: == List of multitier programming languages == * Hop/Hop.js<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal\|last=Serrano\|first=Manuel\|date=2012\|title=Multitier programming in Hop.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/cacm/SerranoB12.html\|journal=Commun. ACM\|volume=55\|issue=8\|pages=53–59\|doi=10.1145/2240236.2240253\|s2cid=2152326\|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Serrano\|first=Manuel\|date=2006\|title=Hop: a language for programming the web 2.0.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/oopsla/SerranoGL06.html\|pages=975–985\|doi=10.1145/1176617.1176756\|s2cid=14306230\|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last=Serrano\|first=Manuel\|~~date~~title=~~2016~~Proceedings of the 21st ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Functional Programming \|~~title~~chapter=A glimpse of Hopjs. \|date=2016\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/icfp/SerranoP16.html\|pages=180–192\|doi=10.1145/2951913.2951916\|isbn=9781450342193\|s2cid=18393160 }}</ref> * Links<ref name=":1">{{Cite book\|last=Cooper\|first=Ezra\|~~date~~title=~~2006~~Formal Methods for Components and Objects \|~~title~~chapter=Links: Web Programming Without Tiers. \|date=2006\|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science\|volume=4709\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/fmco/CooperLWY06.html\|pages=266–296\|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-74792-5_12\|hdl=20.500.11820/ef5f100a-0366-4b85-8ef1-622fd7fbb53a \|isbn=978-3-540-74791-8\|s2cid=16397220 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Fowler\|first=Simon\|date=2019\|title=Exceptional asynchronous session types: session types without tiers.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/pacmpl/FowlerLMD19.html\|journal=Proc. ACM Program. Lang.\|volume=3\|issue=POPL\|pages=28:1–28:29\|doi=10.1145/3290341\|s2cid=57757469\|doi-access=free\|hdl=1808/27512\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Ur/Web<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Chlipala\|first=Adam\|date=2015\|title=Ur/Web: A Simple Model for Programming the Web.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/popl/Chlipala15.html\|pages=153–165\|doi=10.1145/2676726.2677004\|s2cid=9440677\|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Eliom/Ocsigen<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal\|last=Balat\|first=Vincent\|date=2006\|title=Ocsigen: typing web interaction with objective Caml.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/ml/Balat06.html\|pages=84–94\|doi=10.1145/1159876.1159889\|s2cid=6131454\|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last=Radanne\|first=Gabriel\|~~date~~title=Companion of the Web Conference 2018 on the Web Conference 2018 - WWW '18 \|~~title~~chapter=Tierless Web Programming in the Large. \|date=2018\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/www/RadanneV18.html\|pages=681–689\|doi=10.1145/3184558.3185953\|isbn=9781450356404\|s2cid=3304415}}</ref> ScalaLoci<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Weisenburger\|first=Pascal\|date=2018\|title=Distributed system development with ScalaLoci.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/pacmpl/WeisenburgerKS18.html\|journal=Proc. ACM Program. Lang.\|volume=2\|issue=OOPSLA\|pages=129:1–129:30\|doi=10.1145/3276499\|s2cid=53090153\|doi-access=free}}</ref> StiP.js<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Philips\|first=Laure\|~~date~~title=Proceedings of the 2014 ACM International Symposium on New Ideas, New Paradigms, and Reflections on Programming & Software \|~~title~~chapter=Towards Tierless Web Development without Tierless Languages. \|date=2014\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/oopsla/PhilipsRCM14.html\|pages=69–81\|doi=10.1145/2661136.2661146\|isbn=9781450332101\|s2cid=15774367}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Philips\|first=Laure\|date=2018\|title=Search-based Tier Assignment for Optimising Offline Availability in Multi-tier Web Applications.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/programming/PhilipsKMR18.html\|journal=Programming Journal\|volume=2\|issue=2\|pages=3\|doi=10.22152/programming-journal.org/2018/2/3\|s2cid=11256561\|doi-access=free\|arxiv=1712.01161}}</ref> Scala Multi-Tier FRP<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Reynders\|first=Bob\|~~date~~title=Proceedings of the 2014 ACM International Symposium on New Ideas, New Paradigms, and Reflections on Programming & Software \|~~title~~chapter=Multi-Tier Functional Reactive Programming for the Web. \|date=2014\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/oopsla/ReyndersDP14.html\|pages=55–68\|doi=10.1145/2661136.2661140\|isbn=9781450332101\|s2cid=16761616}}</ref> Opa<ref name=":3">Rajchenbach-Teller, D., & Sinot, Franois-Régis. (2010). Opa: Language support for a sane, safe and secure web. ''Proceedings of the OWASP AppSec Research'', ''2010''(1).</ref> AmbientTalk/R<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Carreton\|first=Andoni Lombide\|~~date~~title=~~2010~~Objects, Models, Components, Patterns \|~~title~~chapter=Loosely-Coupled Distributed Reactive Programming in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks. \|date=2010\|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science\|volume=6141\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/tools/CarretonMCM10.html\|pages=41–60\|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-13953-6_3\|isbn=978-3-642-13952-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last=Dedecker\|first=Jessie\|date=2006\|title=Ambient-Oriented Programming in AmbientTalk.\|chapter=Ambient-Oriented Programming in Ambient ''Talk''\|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science\|volume=4067\|chapter-url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/ecoop/DedeckerCMDM06.html\|pages=230–254\|doi=10.1007/11785477_16\|isbn=978-3-540-35726-1}}</ref> ML5<ref>{{Cite book\|last=VII\|first=Tom Murphy\|~~date~~title=~~2007~~Trustworthy Global Computing \|~~title~~chapter=Type-Safe Distributed Programming with ML5. \|date=2007\|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science\|volume=4912\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/tgc/VIICH07.html\|pages=108–123\|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-78663-4_9\|isbn=978-3-540-78662-7\|s2cid=12534714 }}</ref> WebSharper<ref name=":4">{{Cite ~~journal~~book\|last1=Bjornson\|first1=Joel\|last2=Tayanovskyy\|first2=Anton\|last3=Granicz\|first3=Adam\|~~date~~title=~~2010~~Implementation and Application of Functional Languages \|~~title~~chapter=Composing Reactive GUIs in F# Using WebSharper \|~~journal~~date=~~Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Implementation and Application of Functional Languages~~2010\|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science \|volume=6647 \|page=49\|___location=Berlin, Heidelberg\|publisher=Springer-Verlag\|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-24276-2_13\|isbn=978-3-642-24275-5 }}</ref> Haste<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Ekblad\|first1=Anton\|last2=Claessen\|first2=Koen\|date=2015-05-11\|title=A seamless, client-centric programming model for type safe web applications\|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2775050.2633367\|journal=ACM SIGPLAN Notices\|volume=49\|issue=12\|pages=79–89\|doi=10.1145/2775050.2633367\|issn=0362-1340\|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Fun<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Fun (a programming language for the realtime web)\|url=http://marcuswest.in/essays/fun-intro/\|website=marcuswest.in\|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> Koka<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Leijen\|first=Daan\|date=2014\|title=Koka: Programming with Row Polymorphic Effect Types.\|journal=Electronic Proceedings in Theoretical Computer Science\|volume=153\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/corr/Leijen14.html\|pages=100–126\|doi=10.4204/EPTCS.153.8\|arxiv=1406.2061\|s2cid=14902937}}</ref> Multi-Tier Calculus<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Neubauer\|first=Matthias\|~~date~~title=~~2005~~Proceedings of the 32nd ACM SIGPLAN-SIGACT symposium on Principles of programming languages \|~~title~~chapter=From sequential programs to multi-tier applications by program transformation. \|date=2005\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/popl/NeubauerT05.html\|pages=221–232\|doi=10.1145/1040305.1040324\|isbn=158113830X\|s2cid=10338936}}</ref> Swift<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=ChongStephen\|last2=LiuJed\|last3=C\|first3=MyersAndrew\|last4=QiXin\|last5=VikramK\|last6=ZhengLantian\|last7=ZhengXin\|date=2007-10-14\|title=Secure web applications via automatic partitioning\|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/1323293.1294265\|journal=ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review\|volume=41\|issue=6\|pages=31–44\|language=EN\|doi=10.1145/1323293.1294265\|hdl=1813/5769 \|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Volta<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Manolescu\|first=Dragos\|date=2008\|title=Volta: Developing Distributed Applications by Recompiling.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/software/ManolescuBL08.html\|journal=IEEE Software\|volume=25\|issue=5\|pages=53–59\|doi=10.1109/MS.2008.131\|s2cid=24360031\|url-access=subscription}}</ref> GWT<ref name=":6">{{Cite book\|last=Kereki, Federico, 1960-~~\|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/606556208~~\|title=Essential GWT: building for the web with Google Web toolkit 2\|date=2011\|publisher=Addison-Wesley\|isbn=978-0-321-70563-1\|___location=Upper Saddle River, NJ\|oclc=606556208}}</ref> Meteor<ref name=":5">{{Cite book\|last=Strack, Isaac~~\|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/823718999~~\|title=Getting started with Meteor JavaScript framework\|date=January 2012\|isbn=978-1-78216-083-0\|___location=Birmingham\|oclc=823718999}}</ref> J-Orchestra<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Tilevich\|first=Eli\|~~date~~title=ECOOP 2002 — Object-Oriented Programming \|~~title~~chapter=J-Orchestra: Automatic Java Application Partitioning. \|date=2002\|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science\|volume=2374\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/ecoop/TilevichS02.html\|pages=178–204\|doi=10.1007/3-540-47993-7_8\|hdl=1853/6531 \|isbn=978-3-540-43759-8}}</ref> Hiphop<ref>{{Cite ~~journal~~book\|last1=Berry\|first1=Gérard\|last2=Nicolas\|first2=Cyprien\|last3=Serrano\|first3=Manuel~~\|date=2011~~\|title~~=Hiphop\|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2093328.2093337\|journal~~=Proceedings of the 1st ACM SIGPLAN ~~International~~international ~~Workshop~~workshop on Programming ~~Language~~language and ~~Systems~~systems ~~Technologies~~technologies for ~~Internet~~internet ~~Clients~~clients \|chapter=Hiphop \|date=2011\|chapter- ~~PLASTIC '11~~url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2093328.2093337\|page=49\|___location=New York, New York, USA\|publisher=ACM Press\|doi=10.1145/2093328.2093337\|isbn=978-1-4503-1171-7\|s2cid=1280230}}</ref> Distributed Orc<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Thywissen\|first=John A.\|date=2016\|title=Implicitly Distributing Pervasively Concurrent Programs: Extended abstract.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/ecoop/ThywissenPC16.html\|pages=1\|doi=10.1145/2957319.2957370\|s2cid=6124391\|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Jif/split<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Zdancewic\|first=Steve\|date=2002\|title=Secure program partitioning.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/journals/tocs/ZdancewicZNM02.html\|journal=ACM Trans. Comput. Syst.\|volume=20\|issue=3\|pages=283–328\|doi=10.1145/566340.566343\|s2cid=1776939\|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Fission<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Guha\|first1=Arjun\|last2=Jeannin\|first2=Jean-Baptiste\|last3=Nigam\|first3=Rachit\|last4=Tangen\|first4=Jane\|last5=Shambaugh\|first5=Rian\|date=2017\|editor-last=Lerner\|editor-first=Benjamin S.\|editor2-last=Bodík\|editor2-first=Rastislav\|editor3-last=Krishnamurthi\|editor3-first=Shriram\|title=Fission: Secure Dynamic Code-Splitting for JavaScript\|url=http://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2017/7124\|journal=2nd Summit on Advances in Programming Languages (SNAPL 2017)\|series=Leibniz International Proceedings in Informatics (LIPIcs)\|___location=Dagstuhl, Germany\|publisher=Schloss Dagstuhl–Leibniz-Zentrum fuer Informatik\|volume=71\|pages=5:1–5:13\|doi=10.4230/LIPIcs.SNAPL.2017.5\|doi-access=free \|isbn=978-3-95977-032-3}}</ref> SIF<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Chong\|first=Stephen\|date=2007\|title=SIF: Enforcing Confidentiality and Integrity in Web Applications.\|url=https://www.usenix.org/conference/16th-usenix-security-symposium/sif-enforcing-confidentiality-and-integrity-web}}</ref> WebDSL<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Groenewegen\|first=Danny M.\|date=2008\|title=WebDSL: a ___domain-specific language for dynamic web applications.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/oopsla/GroenewegenHKV08.html\|pages=779–780\|doi=10.1145/1449814.1449858\|s2cid=8073129\|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Acute<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Sewell\|first=Peter\|date=2005\|title=Acute: high-level programming language design for distributed computation.\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/icfp/SewellLWNAHV05.html\|pages=15–26\|doi=10.1145/1086365.1086370\|s2cid=1308126\|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Mobl<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Hemel\|first=Zef\|~~date~~title=Proceedings of the 2011 ACM international conference on Object oriented programming systems languages and applications \|~~title~~chapter=Declaratively programming the mobile web with Mobl. \|date=2011\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/oopsla/HemelV11.html\|pages=695–712\|doi=10.1145/2048066.2048121\|isbn=9781450309400\|s2cid=10480906}}</ref> *High-Level Abstractions for Web Programming<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Richard-Foy\|first=Julien\|~~date~~title=~~2013~~Proceedings of the 12th international conference on Generative programming: Concepts & experiences \|~~title~~chapter=Efficient high-level abstractions for web programming. \|date=2013\|url=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/gpce/Richard-FoyBJ13.html\|pages=53–60\|doi=10.1145/2517208.2517227\|isbn=9781450323734\|s2cid=14305623}}</ref> == References == {{reflist}} ▲{{Programming paradigms navbox}} [[Category:Programming paradigms]]