High-level language computer architecture: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Computer designed to run a specific language}}

A '''high-level language computer architecture''' ('''HLLCA''') is a [[computer architecture]] designed to be targeted by a specific [[high-level programming language]] (HLL), rather than the architecture being dictated by hardware considerations. It is accordingly also known astermed '''language-directed computer design,''', coined in {{harvtxt|McKeeman|1967}} and primarily used in the 1960s and 1970s. HLLCAs were popular in the 1960s and 1970s, but largely disappeared in the 1980s. This followed the dramatic failure of the [[Intel 432]] (1981) and the emergence of [[optimizing compiler]]s and [[reduced instruction set computingcomputer]] (RISC) architecturearchitectures and RISC-like [[complex instruction set computer]] (CISC) architectures, and the later development of [[just-in-time compilation]] (JIT) for HLLs. A detailed survey and critique can be found in {{harvtxt|Ditzel|Patterson|1980}}.

HLLCAs date almost to the beginning of HLLs, in the [[Burroughs large systems]] (1961), which waswere designed for [[ALGOL 60]] (1960), one of the first HLLs. The mostbest well-known HLLCAs aremay be the [[Lisp machine]]s of the 1970s and 1980s, (for the language [[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]], (1959). At present the most popular HLLCAs are [[Java processor]]s, for the language [[Java (programming language)|Java]] (1995), and these are a qualified success, being used for certain applications. A recent architecture in this vein is the [[Heterogeneous System Architecture]] (2012), whosewhich [[HSA Intermediate Layer]] (HSAIL) provides instruction set support for HLL features such as exceptions and virtual functions; this uses JIT to ensure performance.

==Definition==

There isare a wide variety of systems under this heading. The most extreme example is a Directly Executed Language (DEL), where the [[instruction set architecture]] (ISA) of the computer equals the instructions of the HLL, and the [[source code]] is directly executable with minimal processing. In extreme cases, the only compilationcompiling requiredneeded is [[Tokenization (lexical analysis)|tokenizing]] the source code and feeding the tokens directly to the processor; this is found in [[stack-oriented programming language]]s running on a [[stack machine]]. For more conventional languages, the HLL statements are grouped into instruction + [[Parameter (computer programming)|arguments]], and [[Infix notation|infix]] order is transformed to [[Substring|prefix]] or [[Reverse Polish notation|postfix]] order. DELs are typically only hypothetical, though they were advocated in the 1970s.<ref>See Yaohan Chu references.</ref>

In less extreme examples, the source code is first parsed to [[bytecode]], which is then the [[machine code]] that is passed to the processor. In these cases, the system typically lacks an [[Assembly language|assembler]], as the [[compiler]] is deemed sufficient, though in some cases (such as Java), assemblers are used to produce legal bytecode which would not be output by the compiler. This approach was found in the [[Pascal MicroEngine]] (1979), and is currently used by Java processors.

More loosely, a HLLCA may simply be a general-purpose computer architecture with some features specifically to support a given HLL or several HLLs. This was found in Lisp machines from the 1970s onward, which augmented general-purpose processors with operations specifically designed to support Lisp.

==Examples==

{{see also|Stack machine#Commercial stack machines}}

The [[Burroughs Large Systems]] (1961) were the first HLLCA, designed to support ALGOL (1959), one of the earliest HLLs. This was referred to at the time as "language-directed design"." The [[Burroughs Medium Systems]] (1966) were designed to support [[COBOL]] for business applications. The [[Burroughs Small Systems]] (mid-1970s, designed from late 1960s) were designed to support multiple HLLs by a writable [[control store]]. These were all mainframes.

The [[Wang 2200]] (1973) series were designed with a [[BASIC]] interpreter in micro-code.

The [[Pascal MicroEngine]] (1979) was designed for the [[UCSD Pascal]] form of [[Pascal (programming language)|Pascal]], and used [[p-code machine|p-code]] (Pascal compiler bytecode) as its machine code. This was influential on the later development of Java and Java machines.

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[[Intel iAPX 432]] (1981) was designed to support Ada. This was Intel's first 32-bit processor design, and was intended to be Intel's main processor family for the 1980s, but failed commercially.

[[Rekursiv]] (mid-1980s) was a minor system, designed to support [[object-oriented programming]] and the [[Lingo (programming language)#Other languages called Lingo|Lingo]] programming language in hardware, and supported [[recursion]] at the instruction set level, hence the name.

A number of processors and coprocessors intended to implement [[Prolog]] more directly were designed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, including the [http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Pubs/TechRpts/1991/6379.html Berkeley VLSI-PLM], its successor (the [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=74948 PLUM]), and a [http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Pubs/TechRpts/1988/5870.html related microcode implementation]. There were also a number of simulated designs that were not produced as hardware [httphttps://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpldocument/freeabs_all.jsp380918/;jsessionid=A86AF912E75993CA7D045D7807BC1F9D?arnumber=380918 A VHDL-based methodology for designing a Prolog processor], [httphttps://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpldocument/freeabs_all.jsp183879/;jsessionid=470A2E0F0ECF4188B2F876ECEC505134?arnumber=183879 A Prolog coprocessor for superconductors]. Like Lisp, Prolog's basic model of computation is radically different from standard imperative designs, and computer scientists and electrical engineers were eager to escape the bottlenecks caused by emulating their underlying models.

[[Niklaus Wirth]]'s [[Lilith (computer)|Lilith]] project included a custom CPU geared toward the [[Modula-2]] language.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pascal.hansotten.com/index.php?page=history-of-lilith |title=Pascal for Small Machines – History of Lilith |publisher=Pascal.hansotten.com |date=28 September 2010 |accessdateaccess-date=12 November 2011 |archive-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320091110/http://pascal.hansotten.com/index.php?page=history-of-lilith |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The INMOS [[Transputer]] was designed to support concurrent programming, using [[occam (programming language)|occam]].

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The [[AT&T Hobbit]] processor, stemming from a design called CRISP (C-language Reduced Instruction Set Processor), was optimized to run [[C (programming language)|C]] code.

In the late 1990s, there were plans by [[Sun Microsystems]] and other companies to build CPUs that directly (or closely) implemented the stack-based [[Java (programming language)|Java]] [[Java Virtualvirtual Machinemachine|virtual machine]]. As a result, several [[Java processor]]s have been built and used.

[[Ericsson]] developed ECOMP, a processor designed to run [[Erlang (programming language)|Erlang]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.erlang.se/euc/00/processor.ppt |title=ECOMP - an Erlang Processor |access-date=2022-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424115257/http://www.erlang.se/euc/00/processor.ppt |archive-date=2021-04-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was never commercially produced.

The HSA Intermediate Layer (HSAIL) of the [[Heterogeneous System Architecture]] (2012) provides a virtual instruction set to abstract away from the underlying ISAs, and has support for HLL features such as exceptions and virtual functions, and include debugging support.

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A further advantage is that a language implementation can be updated by updating the microcode ([[firmware]]), without requiring recompilation of an entire system. This is analogous to updating an interpreter for an interpreted language.

An advantage that's reappearing post-2000 is safety or security. Mainstream IT has largely moved to languages with type and/or memory safety for most applications.{{Cn|date=May 2023}} The software those depend on, from OS to virtual machines, leverage native code with no protection. Many vulnerabilities have been found in such code. One solution is to use a processor custom built to execute a safe high level language or at least understand types. Protections at the processor word level make attackers' job phenomenally difficult compared to low level machines that see no distinction between scalar data, arrays, pointers, or code. Academics are also developing languages with similar properties that might integrate with high level processors in the future. An example of both of these trends is the SAFE<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.crash-safe.org/ |title=SAFE Project |access-date=2022-07-09 |archive-date=2019-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022221212/http://www.crash-safe.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> project. Compare [[language-based system]]s, where the software (especially operating system) is based around a safe, high-level language, though the hardware need not be: the "trusted base" may still be in a lower level language.

==Disadvantages==

A detailed critique is given in {{harvtxt|Ditzel|Patterson|1980}}.

The simplest reason for the lack of success of HLLCAs is that from 1980 [[optimizing compiler]]s resulted in much faster code and were easier to develop than implementing a language in microcode. Many compiler optimizationoptimizations require complex analysis and rearrangement of the code, so the machine code is very different from the original source code. These optimizations are either impossible or impractical to implement in microcode, due to the complexity and the overhead. Analogous performance problems have a long history with interpreted languages (dating to Lisp (1958)), only being resolved adequately for practical use by [[just-in-time compilation]], pioneered in [[Self (programming language)|Self]] and commercialized in the [[HotSpot (virtual machine)|HotSpot]] [[Java virtual machine]] (1999).

The fundamental problem is that HLLCAs only simplify the [[Code generation (compiler)|code generation]] step of compilers, which is typically a relatively small part of compilation, and a questionable use of computing power (transistors and microcode). At the minimum tokenization is requiredneeded, and typically syntactic analysis and basic semantic checks (unbound variables) will still be performed – so there is no benefit to the front end – and optimization requires ahead-of-time analysis – so there is no benefit to the middle end.

A deeper problem, still an active area of development {{as of|2014|lc=1}},<ref>See [[LLVM]] and the Clang compiler.</ref> is that providing HLL debugging information from machine code is quite difficult, basically because of the overhead of debugging information, and more subtly because compilation (particularly optimization) makes determining the original source for a machine instruction quite involved. Thus the debugging information provided as an essential part of HLLCAs either severely limits implementation or adds significant overhead in ordinary use.

Further, HLLCAs are typically optimized for a singleone language, supporting other languages more poorly. Similar issues arise in multi-language virtual machines, notably the Java virtual machine (designed for Java) and the .NET [[Common Language Runtime]] (designed for [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]]), where other languages are second-class citizens, and often must hew closely to the main language in semantics. For this reason lower-level ISAs allow multiple languages to be well-supported, given compiler support. However, a similar issue arises even for many apparently language-neutral processors, which are well-supported by the language [[C (programming language)|C]], and where [[source-to-source compiler|transpiling]] to C (rather than directly targeting the hardware) yields efficient programs and simple compilers.

The advantages of HLLCAs can be alternatively achieved in HLL Computer ''Systems'' ([[language-based system]]s) in alternative ways, primarily via compilers or interpreters: the system is still written in a HLL, but there is a trusted base in software running on a lower-level architecture. This has been the approach followed since circa 1980: for example, a Java system where the runtime environment itself is written in C, but the operating system and applications written in Java.

==Alternatives==

Since the 1980s the focus of research and implementation in general-purpose computer architectures has primarily been in RISC-like architectures, typically internally register-rich [[load/storeload–store architecture]]s, with rather stable, non-language-specific ISAs, featuring multiple registers, pipelining, and more recently multicore systems, rather than language-specific ISAs. Language support has focused on compilers and their runtimes, and interpreters and their virtual machines (particularly JIT'ing ones), with little direct hardware support. For example, the current [[Objective -C]] runtime for iOS implements [[tagged pointer]]s, which it uses for type-checking and garbage collection, despite the hardware not being a tagged architecture.

In terms of computer architecture, the [[reduced instruction set computing]] (RISC) approach has proven very popular and successful instead, and is opposite from HLLCAs, emphasizing a very simple instruction set architecture. However, the speed advantages of RISC computers in the 1980s was primarily due to early adoption of [[on-chip cache]] and room for large registers, rather than intrinsic advantages of RISC.{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}}.

==See also==

* [[Application-specific integrated circuit|ASIC]]

* [[Java processor]]

* [[Language-based system]]

* [[Lisp machine]]

* [[Prolog#Implementation in hardware]]

* [[Silicon compiler]]

==References==

{{reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

* {{cite conference |last=McKeeman |first=William M. |date=November 14–16, 1967 |title=Language directed computer design |url=http://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings/afips/1967/5070/00/50700413.pdf |conference=AFIPS '67 (Fall) Proceedings of the November 14–16, 1967, Fall Joint Computer Conference |volume=31}}

* {{cite doi|10.1109/AFIPS.1967.136}}

** {{Cite journal |last=Keirstead |first=Ralph E. |date=March 1968 |title=R68-8 Language Directed Computer Design |journal=IEEE Transactions on Computers |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=298 |url=http://www.computer.org/csdl/trans/tc/1968/03/01687335.pdf |doi=10.1109/TC.1968.229106 |s2cid=41983403}} – review

** {{cite doi|10.1109/TC.1968.229106}} – review

* {{Cite conference |last1=Ditzel |first1=David R. |last2=Patterson |first2=David A. |title=Proceedings of the 7th annual symposium on Computer Architecture - ISCA '80 |author-link2=David Patterson (computer scientist) |year=1980 |chapter=Retrospective on High-Level Language Computer Architecture |conference=ISCA '80 Proceedings of the 7th annual symposium on Computer Architecture |pages=97–104 |publisher=ACM |doi=10.1145/800053.801914 |chapter-url=http://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse548/05wi/files/Ditzel-Retrospective-on-HLL-Computer-Architecture.pdf |access-date=2014-11-18}}

* {{cite doi|10.1145/800053.801914}}

* ''[http://www.tkt.cs.tut.fi/kurssit/3520/K13/CH_3.pdf A Baker’s Dozen: Fallacies and Pitfalls in Processor Design]'' Grant Martin &amp; Steve Leibson, [[Tensilica]] (early 2000s), slides 6–9

{{refend}}

==Further reading==

{{refbegin}}

* ''{{Cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Wortman |first=David Barkley |date=1972 |title=A Study of Language Directed Computer Design,'' David Barkley Wortman, |publisher=Department of Computer Science, Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 1972}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Hoevel |first=L.W. |date=August 1974 |title="Ideal" Directly Executed Languages: An Analytical Argument for Emulation |journal=IEEE Transactions on Computers |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=759–767 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/T-C.1974.224032 |s2cid=29921112 |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1022942/m2/1/high_res_d/4310455.pdf}}

* {{cite doi|10.1109/T-C.1974.224032}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Chu |first=Yaohan |date=December 1975 |title=Concepts of high-level-language computer architecture |journal=ACM SIGMICRO Newsletter |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=9–16 |doi=10.1145/1217196.1217197 |s2cid=9545539}}

* {{cite doi|10.1145/1217196.1217197}}

** {{Cite conference |last=Chu |first=Yaohan |title=Proceedings of the 1975 annual conference on - ACM 75 |year=1975 |chapter=Concepts of high-level-language computer architecture |conference=ACM '75 Proceedings of the 1975 annual conference |pages=6–13 |doi=10.1145/800181.810257}}

** {{cite doi|10.1145/800181.810257}}

* {{Cite journal |last1=Chu |first1=Yaohan |last2=Cannon |first2=R. |date=June 1976 |title=Interactive High-Level Language Direct-Execution Microprocessor System |journal=IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=126–134 |doi=10.1109/TSE.1976.233802 |s2cid=9076898}}

* {{cite doi|10.1109/TSE.1976.233802}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Chu |first=Yaohan |date=December 1977 |title=Direct-execution computer architecture |journal=ACM SIGARCH Computer Architecture News |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=18–23 |doi=10.1145/859412.859415 |s2cid=10241380|doi-access=free }}

* {{cite doi|10.1145/859412.859415}}

* {{Cite conference |last=Chu |first=Yaohan |title=Proceedings of the 1978 annual conference on - ACM 78 |year=1978 |chapter=Direct Execution In A High-Level Computer Architecture |conference=ACM '78 Proceedings of the 1978 annual conference |pages=289–300 |doi=10.1145/800127.804116|isbn=0897910001 }}

* {{cite doi|10.1145/800127.804116}}

* {{Cite journal |last1=Chu |first1=Yaohan |last2=Abrams |first2=M. |date=July 1981 |title=Programming Languages and Direct-Execution Computer Architecture |journal=Computer |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=22–32 |doi=10.1109/C-M.1981.220525 |s2cid=3373193}}

* {{cite doi|10.1109/C-M.1981.220525}}

{{refend}}