Content deleted Content added
m →References: correct columnisation, 2 only good for some screens |
m clean up |
||
| (34 intermediate revisions by 12 users not shown) | |||
Line 1:
'''Oxidation with chromium(VI) complexes''' involves the conversion of alcohols to carbonyl compounds or more highly oxidized products through the action of molecular chromium(VI) oxides and salts.<ref name=OR>{{cite journal|author=Luzzio, F. A.|journal=[[Org. React.]]|title=The Oxidation of Alcohols by Modified Oxochromium(VI)–Amine Reagents|year=1998|volume=53|page=1|doi=10.1002/0471264180.or053.01|isbn=0471264180 }}</ref> The principal reagents are Collins reagent, PDC, and PCC. These reagents represent improvements over inorganic chromium(VI) reagents such as [[Jones reagent]].
==Inventory of Cr(VI)-pyridine and pyridinium reagents==
Cr(VI)-pyridine and pyridinium reagents have the advantage that they are soluble in organic solvents as are the alcohol substrates.
One family of reagents employs the complex CrO<sub>3</sub>(pyridine)<sub>2</sub>.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/0-387-25725-X_1|chapter=Chromium-based Reagents|title=Oxidation of Alcohols to Aldehydes and Ketones|series=Basic Reactions in Organic Synthesis|year=2006|pages=1–95|isbn=0-387-23607-4}}</ref>
*[[Sarett oxidation|Sarett's reagent]]: a solution of CrO<sub>3</sub>(pyridine)<sub>2</sub> in pyridine. It was popularized for selective oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols to carbonyl compounds.
*[[Collins reagent]] is a solution of the same CrO<sub>3</sub>(pyridine)<sub>2</sub> but in dichloromethane. The Ratcliffe variant of Collins reagent relates to details of the preparation of this solution, i.e., the addition of chromium trioxide to a solution of pyridine in methylene chloride.<ref name=JCC>{{cite journal | author = J. C. Collins, W.W. Hess | title = Aldehydes from Primary Alcohols by Oxidation with Chromium Trioxide: Heptanal | journal = Organic Syntheses | volume = 52 | pages = 5 | doi = 10.15227/orgsyn.052.0005 | year = 1972| doi-access = free }}</ref>
The second family of reagents are ''salts'', featuring the pyridinium cation (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>NH<sup>+</sup>).
*[[pyridinium dichromate]] (PDC) is the pyridium salt of dichromate, [Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>]<sup>2-</sup>.
Sarrett identified the adduct of pyridine and chromium(VI) oxide ([[Collins reagent]]) as a selective compound for the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols to carbonyl compounds.<ref>Poos, G. I.; Arth, G. E.; Beyler, R. E.; Sarrett, L. H. ''J. Am. Chem. Soc.'', '''1953''', ''75'', 422.</ref> Despite its selectivity, Collins reagent suffers from difficulties associated with its preparation, stability, and efficiency. The less reactive adducts pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) and pyridinium dichromate (PDC) are more easily handled and more selective than Collins reagent in oxidations of alcohols. These reagents, as well as other, more exotic adducts of nitrogen heterocycles with chromium(VI), facilitate a number of oxidative transformations of organic compounds, including cyclization to form [[tetrahydrofuran]] derivatives and allylic transposition to afford enones from [[allyl]]ic alcohols.▼
*[[pyridinium chlorochromate]] (PCC) is the pyridinium salt of [CrO<sub>3</sub>Cl]<sup>−</sup>.
▲
The above reagents represent improvements over the [[Jones reagent]], a solution of [[chromium trioxide]] in aqueous [[sulfuric acid]].
==Mechanism and
[[Chromate ester]]s are implicated in these reactions. The chromate ester decomposes to the aldehyde or carbonyl by transfer of an alpha proton. Large [[kinetic isotope effect]]s (k<sub>H</sub>/k<sub>D</sub>) are observed.<ref name=OR/>
{{center|[[File:ChroMech1.png]]}}
Oxidative annulation of alkenols to form six-membered rings may be accomplished with PCC. This process is postulated to occur via initial oxidation of the alcohol, attack of the alkene on the new carbonyl, then re-oxidation to a ketone. Double-bond isomerization may occur upon treatment with base as shown
{{center|[[File:ChromeScopeCyc.png]]}}
▲Oxidative annulation of alkenols to form six-membered rings may be accomplished with PCC. This process is postulated to occur via initial oxidation of the alcohol, attack of the alkene on the new carbonyl, then re-oxidation to a ketone. Double-bond isomerization may occur upon treatment with base as shown in equation (3) below.<ref>Corey, E. J.; Boger, D. ''Tetrahedron Lett.'', '''1978''', ''19'', 2461.</ref>
An important process mediated by chromium(VI)-amines is the oxidative transposition of tertiary allylic alcohols to give enones.<ref
{{center|[[File:ChroMech2.png]]}}
▲An important process mediated by chromium(VI)-amines is the oxidative transposition of tertiary allylic alcohols to give enones.<ref>Luzzio, F. A.; Moore, W. J. ''J. Org. Chem.'', '''1993''', ''58'', 2966.</ref> The mechanism of this process likely depends on the acidity of the chromium reagent. Acidic reagents such as PCC may cause ionization and recombination of the chromate ester (path A), while the basic reagents (Collins) likely undergo direct allylic transposition via sigmatropic rearrangement (path B).
Oxidative cyclizations of olefinic alcohols to cyclic ethers may occur via [3+2], [2+2],<ref
▲Oxidative cyclizations of olefinic alcohols to cyclic ethers may occur via [3+2], [2+2],<ref>Piccialli, V. ''Synthesis'' '''2007''', 2585.</ref> or [[epoxidation]] mechanisms. The exact mechanism has been debated, although a recent structure-reactivity study provided evidence for direct epoxidation by the chromate ester.<ref>Beihoffer, L.A; Craven, R.A.; Knight, K.S; Cisson, C.R.; Waddell, T.G. ''Trans. Met. Chem.'' '''2005''', ''30'', 582.</ref> Subsequent epoxide opening and release of chromium leads to the observed products.
==Scope and
Buffering agents may be used to prevent acid-labile protecting groups from being removed during chromium(VI)-amine oxidations. However, buffers will also slow down oxidative cyclizations, leading to selective oxidation of alcohols over any other sort of oxidative transformation. Citronellol, for instance, which cyclizes to pugellols in the presence of PCC, does not undergo cyclization when buffers are used.<ref>Fieser, L. F.; Fieser, M. ''Reagents for Organic Synthesis''; Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1979, '''7''', 309.</ref><ref name=whatup>
|author=James H. Babler, Michael J. Coghlan|pages= 469–474|year= 2007|doi=10.1080/00397917608082626|journal=Synthetic Communications}}</ref>
{{center|[[File:ChroScope1.png]]}}
Oxidative cyclization can be used to prepare substituted tetrahydrofurans. Cyclization of dienols leads to the formation of two tetrahydrofuran rings in a ''syn'' fashion.<ref
{{center|[[File:ChroScope2.png]]}}
Enones can be synthesized from tertiary allylic alcohols through the action of a variety of chromium(VI)-amine reagents, in a reaction known as the [[Babler oxidation]]. The reaction is driven by the formation of a more substituted double bond. (''E'')-Enones form in greater amounts than (''Z'') isomers because of chromium-mediated geometric isomerization.<ref name=whatup /><ref
{{center|[[File:ChroScope3.png]]}}
Suitably substituted olefinic alcohols undergo oxidative cyclization to give tetrahydrofurans. Further oxidation of these compounds to give tetrahydropyranyl carbonyl compounds then occurs.<ref
{{center|[[File:ChroScope4.png]]}}
In addition to the limitations described above, chromium(VI) reagents are often unsuccessful in the oxidation of substrates containing heteroatoms (particularly nitrogen). Coordination of the heteroatoms to chromium (with displacements of the amine ligand originally attached to the metal) leads to deactivation and eventual decomposition of the oxidizing agent.
==Comparison with
Methods employing dimethyl sulfoxide (the [[Swern oxidation|Swern]] and [[Moffatt oxidation]]s) are superior to chromium(VI)-amines for oxidations of substrates with heteroatom functionality that may coordinate to chromium.<ref>Tidwell, T. ''Org. React.'' '''1990''', ''39'', 297.</ref> [[Dess-Martin periodinane]] (DMP) offers the advantages of operational simplicity, a lack of heavy metal byproducts, and selective oxidation of complex, late-stage synthetic intermediates.<ref>
Catalytic methods employing cheap, clean terminal oxidants in conjunction with catalytic amounts of chromium reagents produce only small amounts of metal byproducts.<ref
==Historic references==
*Poos, G. I.; Arth, G. E.; Beyler, R. E.; Sarrett, L. H. ''J. Am. Chem. Soc.'', '''1953''', ''75'', 422.
*{{cite journal | title = Improved Procedure for Oxidations with the Chromium Trioxide-Pyridine Complex| author = Ronald Ratcliffe and Ronald Rodehorst | journal = [[J. Org. Chem.]] | year = 1970 | volume = 35 | issue = 11 | pages = 4000–4001 | doi = 10.1021/jo00836a108}}
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
[[Category:Organic oxidation reactions]]
| |||