Levels of processing model: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|A psychologicalPsychological model of memory}}

The '''levels- of- processing model''', created by [[Fergus I. M. Craik]] and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972, describes [[memory]] [[recollection|recall]] of [[Stimulus (physiology)|stimuli]] as a function of the depth of mental processing., Morewhere analysisdeeper levels of processing produce more elaborate and stronger [[memory]] than lowermore shallow levels of processing. Depth of processing falls on a shallow to deep continuum.{{cn|date=February 2024}} Shallow processing (e.g., processing based on [[phonemic]] and [[Orthography|orthographic]] components) leads to a fragile memory trace that is susceptible to rapid decay. Conversely, deep processing (e.g., [[semantic processing]]) results in a more durable memory trace.<ref name="CL1972"/> There are three levels of processing in this model. Structural or visual processing involves remembering only the physical quality of the word (e.g. how the word is spelled and how letters look). Phonemic processing includes remembering the word by the way it sounds (e.g. the word tall rhymes with fall). Lastly, in semantic processing, individuals encode the meaning of the word with another word that is similar or has similar meaning. Once the word is perceived, the brain allows for a deeper processing.

This theory contradicts the multi-store [[Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model]] which represents memory strength as being continuously variable, the assumption being that rehearsal always improves [[long-term memory]]. They argued that rehearsal that consists simply of repeating previous analyses (maintenance rehearsal) does not enhance long-term memory.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eysenck, M.|year=2006|chapter=Learning and Long-term memory|title=Fundamentals of cognition|edition=Second|___location=Hove, England|publisher=Psychology Press}}</ref>

In a study from 1975 (Craik and [[Endel Tulving|Tulving]]) participants were given a list of 60 words. Each word was presented along with three questions. The participant had to answer one of them. Those three questions were in one of three categories. One category of questions was about how the word was presented visually ("Is the word shown in ''italics''?"). The second category of questions was about the phonemic qualities of the word ("Does the word begin with the sound 'bee'?"). The third category of questions was presented so that the reader was forced to think about the word within a certain context. ("Can you meet one in the street [a friend]"?) The result of this study showed that the words which contained deep processing (the latter) were remembered better.<ref>{{citrcite journal|author1=Craik, F. I.|author2=Tulving, E.|name-list-style=amp|year=1975|title=Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory|journal=Journal of experimentalExperimental Psychology: generalGeneral|volume=104|issue=3|pppages=268|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.104.3.268}}</ref>

==Modifiers==

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===Vision===

[[Visual perception|Visual input]] creates the strongest recall value of all senses, and also allows the widest spectrum of levels-of-processing modifiers. It is also one of the most widely studied. Within visual studies, pictures have been shown to have a greater recall value than words – the [[picture superiority effect]]. However, semantic associations have the reverse effect in picture memories appear to be reversed to those in other memories. When logical details are stressed, rather than physical details, an image's recall value becomes lower.<ref>{{Cite journal | issn = 0278-7393 | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | pages = 284–98 | last = Intraub | first = H |author2=Nicklos S | title = Levels of processing and picture memory: the physical superiority effect| pmid = 3157769 | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition | year = 1985 | doi = 10.1037/0278-7393.11.2.284 }}</ref> When comparing [[orthography|orthographic]] (capitalization, letter and word shape), phonological (word sound) and semantic (word meaning) [[Encoding (memory)|encoding]] cues, the highest levels of recall were found with the meanings of the words, followed by their sounds and finally the written and shape-based cues were found to generate the least ability to stimulate recall.<ref name="CL1972">{{cite journal | last = Craik | first = FIM |author2=Lockhart RS | year = 1972| title = Levels of processing: A framework for memory research | doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = 671–84 | journal = Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior | s2cid = 14153362 }}</ref>

===Hearing===