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The '''Black Death''' was a [[bubonic plague]] [[pandemic]] that occurred in [[Europe]] from 1346 to 1353. It was one of the [[list of epidemics|most fatal pandemics]] in human history; as many as {{nowrap|50 million}} people<ref name="lead numbers"/> perished, perhaps 50% of Europe's 14th century population.<ref>{{
The origin of the Black Death is disputed.<ref name="lead origin" /> Genetic analysis suggests ''Yersinia pestis'' bacteria evolved approximately 7,000 years ago, at the beginning of the [[Neolithic]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Susat |first1=Julian |last2=Lübke |first2=Harald |last3=Immel |first3=Alexander |last4=Brinker |first4=Ute |last5=Macāne |first5=Aija |last6=Meadows |first6=John |last7=Steer |first7=Britta |last8=Tholey |first8=Andreas |last9=Zagorska |first9=Ilga |last10=Gerhards |first10=Guntis |last11=Schmölcke |first11=Ulrich |last12=Kalniņš |first12=Mārcis |last13=Franke |first13=Andre |last14=Pētersone-Gordina |first14=Elīna |last15=Teßman |first15=Barbara |last16=Tõrv |first16=Mari |last17=Schreiber |first17=Stefan |last18=Andree |first18=Christian |last19=Bērziņš |first19=Valdis |last20=Nebel |first20=Almut |last21=Krause-Kyora |first21=Ben |display-authors=1 |title=A 5,000-year-old hunter-gatherer already plagued by Yersinia pestis |journal=Cell Reports |volume=35 |issue=13 |date=29 June 2021 |article-number=109278 |doi=10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109278 |pmid=34192537 |doi-access=free }}</ref> with flea-mediated strains emerging around 3,800 years ago during the late [[Bronze Age]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spyrou |first1=Maria A |last2=Tukhbatova |first2=Rezeda I |last3=Wang |first3=Chuan-Chao |last4=Andrades Valtueña |first4=Aida |last5=Lankapalli |first5=Aditya K |last6=Kondrashin |first6=Vitaly V |last7=Tsybin |first7=Victor A |last8=Khokhlov |first8=Aleksandr |last9=Kühnert |first9=Denise |last10=Herbig |first10=Alexander |last11=Bos |first11=Kirsten I |last12=Krause |first12=Johannes |title=Analysis of 3800-year-old Yersinia pestis genomes suggests Bronze Age origin for bubonic plague |journal=Nature Communications |volume=9 |date=2018 |issue=1 |page=2234 |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-04550-9 |pmid=29884871 |pmc=5993720 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9.2234S |display-authors=1 }}</ref> The immediate territorial origins of the Black Death and its outbreak remain unclear, with some evidence pointing towards [[Central Asia]], China, the [[Middle East]], and Europe.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/01/health/01plague.html |title=Europe's Plagues Came from China, Study Finds |work=The New York Times |date=31 October 2010 |access-date=24 February 2017 |archive-date=4 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101104083917/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/01/health/01plague.html |url-status=live |last1=Wade |first1=Nicholas }}</ref>{{sfn|Sussman|2011|p=354}} The pandemic was reportedly first introduced to Europe during the [[Siege of Caffa|siege of the Genoese trading port of Kaffa]] in [[Crimea]] by the [[Golden Horde]] army of [[Jani Beg]] in 1347. From Crimea, it was most likely carried by [[Oriental rat flea|fleas]] living on the [[black rat]]s that travelled on [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] ships, spreading through the [[Mediterranean Basin]] and reaching [[North Africa]], [[West Asia]], and the rest of Europe via [[Constantinople]], [[Sicily]], and the [[Italian Peninsula]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Black-Death |title=Black Death | Causes, Facts, and Consequences |access-date=1 August 2019 |archive-date=9 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709135155/https://www.britannica.com/event/Black-Death |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |url-status=live }}</ref> There is evidence that once it came ashore, the Black Death mainly spread from person-to-person as [[pneumonic plague]], thus explaining the quick inland spread of the epidemic, which was faster than would be expected if the primary [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]] was [[rat flea]]s causing bubonic plague.{{sfn|Snowden|2019|pp=49–53}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plague |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/plague |access-date=2024-07-23 |website=www.who.int |language=en |archive-date=30 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180430115308/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/plague |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=McCoy |first=Terrence |date=2021-10-26 |title=Everything you know about the Black Death is wrong |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/03/31/everything-you-know-about-the-black-death-is-wrong-say-the-bones/ |access-date=2024-07-23 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827172208/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/03/31/everything-you-know-about-the-black-death-is-wrong-say-the-bones/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2022, it was discovered that there was a sudden surge of deaths in what is today Kyrgyzstan from the Black Death in the late 1330s; when combined with genetic evidence, this implies that the initial spread may have been unrelated to the 14th century [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol conquests]] previously postulated as the cause.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-15 |title=Mystery of Black Death's origins solved, say researchers |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/jun/15/mystery-black-death-origins-solved-plague-pandemic |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=The Guardian |language=en |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615232333/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/jun/15/mystery-black-death-origins-solved-plague-pandemic |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Spyrou 1–7">{{Cite journal |last1=Spyrou |first1=Maria A. |last2=Musralina |first2=Lyazzat |last3=Gnecchi Ruscone |first3=Guido A. |last4=Kocher |first4=Arthur |last5=Borbone |first5=Pier-Giorgio |last6=Khartanovich |first6=Valeri I. |last7=Buzhilova |first7=Alexandra |last8=Djansugurova |first8=Leyla |last9=Bos |first9=Kirsten I. |last10=Kühnert |first10=Denise |last11=Haak |first11=Wolfgang |date=2022-06-15 |title=The source of the Black Death in fourteenth-century central Eurasia |journal=Nature |volume=606 |issue=7915 |language=en |pages=718–724 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04800-3 |pmid=35705810 |pmc=9217749 |bibcode=2022Natur.606..718S |s2cid=249709693 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref>
The Black Death was the second great natural disaster to strike Europe during the [[Crisis of the Late Middle Ages|Late Middle Ages]] (the first one being the [[Great Famine of 1315–1317]]) and is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of the European population, as well as approximately 33% of the population of the Middle East.{{sfn|Aberth|2010|pp=9–13}}{{sfn|Alchon|2003|p=21}}<ref>{{Cite web| vauthors = Howard J |date=6 July 2020|title=Plague was one of history's deadliest diseases{{snd}}then we found a cure|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-diseases/the-plague/ |website=National Geographic|access-date=3 December 2020|archive-date=2 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202201701/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-diseases/the-plague/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages and, also due to other contributing factors (the [[crisis of the late Middle Ages]]), the European population did not regain its 14th century level until the 16th century.{{efn|Declining temperatures following the end of the [[Medieval Warm Period]] added to the crisis.}}<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Galens J, Knight J |title=The Late Middle Ages |journal=Middle Ages Reference Library |year=2001 |volume=1 |url=http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Reference&prodId=WHIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCX3426200028&mode=view&userGroupName=holl83564&jsid=33d6ba6bd380219c2073e86fda0b07d0 |publisher=Gale |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-date=16 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216115220/http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Reference&prodId=WHIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCX3426200028&mode=view&userGroupName=holl83564&jsid=33d6ba6bd380219c2073e86fda0b07d0 |url-status=live }}</ref> Outbreaks of the plague recurred around the world until the early 19th century.
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European writers contemporary with the plague described the disease in [[Latin]] as {{Langx|la|pestis|label=none|link=no}} or {{Langx|la|pestilentia|link=no|lit=pestilence|label=none}}; {{Langx|la|epidemia|links=no|lit=epidemic|label=none}}; {{Langx|la|mortalitas|link=no|lit=mortality|label=none}}.<ref name=":1">{{Citation|title=Black Death, n.|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/280254|work=Oxford English Dictionary Online|year=2011|edition=3rd|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-04-11|archive-date=22 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522013812/https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/280254|url-status=live}}</ref> In English prior to the 18th century, the event was called the "pestilence" or "great pestilence", "the plague" or the "great death".<ref name=":1" />{{sfn|Bennett|Hollister|2006|p=326}}<ref>John of Fordun's ''Scotichronicon'' ("there was a great pestilence and mortality of men") {{harvnb|Horrox|1994|p=84}}</ref> Subsequent to the pandemic "the ''furste moreyn''" (first [[murrain]]) or "first pestilence" was applied, to distinguish the mid-14th century phenomenon from other infectious diseases and epidemics of plague.<ref name=":1" />
The 1347 pandemic plague was not referred to specifically as "black,"
This expression — as a proper name for the pandemic — had been popularized by Swedish and Danish chroniclers in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the 16th and 17th centuries, it was transferred to other languages as a [[calque]]: {{Langx|is|svarti dauði}}, {{Langx|de|der schwarze Tod}}, and {{Langx|fr|la mort noire}}.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal| vauthors = d'Irsay S |date=1926|title=Notes to the Origin of the Expression: ≪ Atra Mors ≫|journal=Isis|volume=8|issue=2|pages=328–32 |doi=10.1086/358397|jstor=223649|s2cid=147317779|issn=0021-1753}}</ref><ref>The German physician [[Justus Hecker|Justus Friedrich Karl Hecker]] (1795–1850) cited the phrase in Icelandic ({{lang|is|Svarti Dauði}}), Danish ({{lang|da|den sorte Dod}}), etc. See: {{cite book |last1=Hecker |first1=J. F. C. |title=Der schwarze Tod im vierzehnten Jahrhundert |trans-title=The Black Death in the Fourteenth Century |date=1832 |publisher=Friedr. Aug. Herbig |___location=Berlin, (Germany) |page=3, footnote 1 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_LhoqAAAAYAAJ/page/n11 |language=German |access-date=19 July 2024 |archive-date=29 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429081540/https://books.google.com/books?id=LhoqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Previously, most European languages had named the pandemic a variant or calque of the {{Langx|la|magna mortalitas|lit=Great Death}}.<ref name=":1" />
The phrase 'black death' – describing [[Thanatos|Death]] as black – is very old. [[Homer]] used it in the [[Odyssey]] to describe the monstrous [[Scylla]], with her mouths "full of black Death" ({{Langx|grc|πλεῖοι μέλανος Θανάτοιο|translit=pleîoi mélanos Thanátoio}}).<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'', XII, 92.</ref><ref name=":2" /> [[Seneca the Younger]] may have been the first to describe an epidemic as 'black death', ({{Langx|la|mors atra}}) but only in reference to the acute lethality and dark [[prognosis]] of disease.<ref>Seneca, ''Oedipus'', 164–70.</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> The 12th–13th century French physician [[Gilles de Corbeil]] had already used ''{{lang|la|atra mors}}'' to refer to a "pestilential fever" ({{Langx|la|febris pestilentialis|label=none}}) in his work ''On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases'' ({{Langx|la|De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium|label=none}}).<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/egidiicorbolien02rosegoog|title=Egidii Corboliensis Viaticus: De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium|publisher=In aedibus B.G. Teubneri| vauthors = de Corbeil G |date=1907| veditors = Valentin R |___location=Harvard University|language=la|orig-year=1200}}</ref> The phrase {{Langx|la|mors nigra|lit=black death|label=none}}, was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino (or Couvin), a Belgian astronomer, in his poem "On the Judgement of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" ({{Langx|la|De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni|label=none}}), which attributes the plague to an astrological [[conjunction (astrology)|conjunction]] of Jupiter and Saturn.<ref>On page 22 of the manuscript in [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b9078277z/f25.image Gallica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006064435/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b9078277z/f25.image |date=6 October 2016 }}, Simon mentions the phrase "''mors nigra''" (Black Death): "''Cum rex finisset oracula judiciorum / Mors nigra surrexit, et gentes reddidit illi'';" (When the king ended the oracles of judgment / Black Death arose, and the nations surrendered to him;).▼
▲The phrase 'black death' – describing [[Thanatos|Death]] as black – is very old. [[Homer]] used it in the [[Odyssey]] to describe the monstrous [[Scylla]], with her mouths "full of black Death" ({{Langx|grc|πλεῖοι μέλανος Θανάτοιο|translit=pleîoi mélanos Thanátoio}}).<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'', XII, 92.</ref><ref name=":2" /> [[Seneca the Younger]] may have been the first to describe an epidemic as 'black death', ({{Langx|la|mors atra}}) but only in reference to the acute lethality and dark [[prognosis]] of disease.<ref>Seneca, ''Oedipus'', 164–70.</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> The 12th–13th century French physician [[Gilles de Corbeil]] had already used
* A more legible copy of the poem appears in: Emile Littré (1841) [http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bec_0373-6237_1841_num_2_1_451584?_Prescripts_Search_tabs1=standard& "Opuscule relatif à la peste de 1348, composé par un contemporain"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140722010105/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bec_0373-6237_1841_num_2_1_451584?_Prescripts_Search_tabs1=standard& |date=22 July 2014 }} (Work concerning the plague of 1348, composed by a contemporary), ''Bibliothèque de l'école des chartes'', '''2''' (2) : 201–43; see especially p. 228.
* See also: Joseph Patrick Byrne, ''The Black Death'' (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004), [https://books.google.com/books?id=yw3HmjRvVQMC&pg=PA1 p. 1.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426053818/https://books.google.com/books?id=yw3HmjRvVQMC&pg=PA1 |date=26 April 2016 }}</ref> His use of the phrase is not connected unambiguously with the plague pandemic of 1347 and appears to refer to the fatal outcome of disease.<ref name=":1" />
The historian [[Mrs Markham|Elizabeth Penrose]], writing under the pen-name "Mrs Markham", described the 14th-century outbreak as the "black death" in 1823.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Penrose |first=Elizabeth |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistofengland00markham/page/152/mode/2up?q=%22black+death%22 |title=A History of England |publisher=John Murray |year=1853 |edition=New and Revised |___location=London |pages=152 |language=English}}</ref> The historian Cardinal [[Francis Aidan Gasquet]] wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893{{sfn|Gasquet|1893}} and suggested that it had been "some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague".{{sfn|Christakos|Olea|Serre|Wang|2005|pp=110–14}}{{efn|He was able to adopt the epidemiology of the bubonic plague for the Black Death for the second edition in 1908, implicating rats and fleas in the process, and his interpretation was widely accepted for other ancient and medieval epidemics, such as the [[Plague of Justinian]] that was prevalent in the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] from 541 to 700 CE.{{sfn|Christakos|Olea|Serre|Wang|2005|pp=110–14}}}} In 1908, Gasquet said use of the name
==Previous plague epidemics==
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Researchers are hampered by a lack of reliable statistics from this period. Most work has been done on the spread of the disease in England, where estimates of overall population at the start of the plague vary by over 100%, as no census was undertaken in England between the time of publication of the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 and the [[poll tax#Great Britain|poll tax]] of the year 1377.{{sfn|Ziegler|1998|p=233}} Estimates of plague victims are usually [[extrapolation|extrapolate]]d from figures for the clergy.
[[Mathematical modelling]] is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of [[transmission (medicine)|transmission]]. In 2018 researchers suggested an alternative model in which ''"the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people".'' The second model claims to better fit the trends of the plague's death toll, as the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, contradicting historical death data.<ref>{{cite news| vauthors = Guarino B |date=2018-01-16|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/01/16/the-classic-explanation-for-the-black-death-plague-is-wrong-scientists-say/|title=The classic explanation for the Black Death plague is wrong, scientists say|archive-url=https://archive.today/20180122005044/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/01/16/the-classic-explanation-for-the-black-death-plague-is-wrong-scientists-say/|archive-date=22 January 2018|access-date=2 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Rats May Not Be to Blame for Spreading the 'Black Death'| vauthors = Rettner R |publisher=[[Live Science]]|date=2018-01-17|url=https://www.livescience.com/61444-black-death-cause-found-transmission.html|access-date=2 April 2020|archive-date=28 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328004408/https://www.livescience.com/61444-black-death-cause-found-transmission.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Oriental rat flea has poor survival in cooler climates and reevaluation suggests the [[humean flea]] was the principal vector of plague epidemics in Northern Europe.<ref name="durden">{{cite book | last1=Durden | first1=Lance A. | last2=Hinkle | first2=Nancy C. | title=Medical and Veterinary Entomology | chapter=Fleas (Siphonaptera) | publisher=Elsevier | date=2019 | isbn=978-0-12-814043-7 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-814043-7.00010-8 | pages=145–169}}</ref>
[[Lars Walløe]] argued that these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of ''Yersinia pestis'' infection could spread".{{sfn|Walløe|2008|p=69}} Similarly, [[Monica Green (historian)|Monica Green]] has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-[[commensalism|commensal]]) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague.{{sfn|Green|2015|pages=31ff}}
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Carried by twelve Genoese galleys, plague arrived by ship in [[Sicily]] in October 1347;<ref>Michael of Piazza (Platiensis) ''Bibliotheca scriptorum qui res in Sicilia gestas retulere'' Vol 1, p. 562, cited in Ziegler, 1998, p. 40.</ref> the disease spread rapidly all over the island. Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in [[Pisa]] a few weeks later that was the entry point into northern Italy. Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in [[Marseille]]s.<ref>De Smet, Vol II, ''Breve Chronicon'', p. 15.</ref>
[[Black Death in Italy|From Italy]], the disease spread northwest across Europe, [[Black Death in France|striking France]], [[Black Death in Spain|Spain]], Portugal, and [[Black Death in England|England]] by June 1348, then spreading east and north [[Black Death in Germany|through Germany]], Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. It was introduced [[Black Death in Norway|into Norway]] in 1349 when a ship landed at [[Askøy]], then spread to Bjørgvin (modern [[Bergen]]).{{sfn|Karlsson|2000|page=111}} Finally, it [[Black Death in Russia|spread to northern Russia]] in 1352 and reached [[Moscow]] in 1353.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Byrne |first1=Joseph P. |title=Encyclopedia of the Black Death |date=16 January 2012 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-59884-254-8 |page=245 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FkzEEAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Belich">{{cite book |last1=Belich |first1=James |title=The World the Plague Made: The Black Death and the Rise of Europe |date=25 June 2024 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-21916-5 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P3frEAAAQBAJ |language=en |quote=Northern Russia was hit in 1352, beginning in towns close to the Baltic, Novgorod, and Pskov, and reaching Moscow in 1353.}}</ref> Plague was less common in parts of Europe with less-established trade relations, including the majority of the [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque Country]], isolated parts of Belgium and [[Black Death in the Netherlands|the Netherlands]], and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent.{{sfn|Zuchora-Walske|2013}}{{sfn|Welford|Bossak|2010}}<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Curtis DR, Roosen J | title = The sex-selective impact of the Black Death and recurring plagues in the Southern Netherlands, 1349-1450 | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 164 | issue = 2 | pages = 246–259 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 28617987 | pmc = 6667914 | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.23266 | bibcode = 2017AJPA..164..246C }}</ref>
According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavorable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations, forcing their fleas onto alternative hosts,{{sfn|Samia|Kausrud|Heesterbeek|Ageyev|2011}} inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean{{sfn|Cohn|2008}} and during the cool autumn months of the southern [[Baltic region]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=JcdONPwL2wC&dq=(2004)+Städtesystem+und+Urbanisierung+im+Ostseeraum+in+der+frühen+Neuzeit:+Wirtschaft,+Baukultur+und+historische+Informationssysteme:+Beiträge+des+wissenschaftlichen+Kolloquiums+in+Wismar+vom+4.+und+5.+September+2003+(LIT,+Munster,+Germany).+German&pg=PA7 Stefan Kroll]{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Kersten Krüger (2004). LIT Verlag Berlin. {{ISBN|3-8258-8778-2}}</ref>{{efn|However, other researchers do not think that plague ever became endemic in Europe or its rat population. The disease repeatedly wiped out the rodent carriers, so that the fleas died out until a new outbreak from Central Asia repeated the process. The outbreaks have been shown to occur roughly 15 years after a warmer and wetter period in areas where plague is endemic in other species, such as [[gerbillinae|gerbil]]s.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Bubonic plague was a serial visitor in European Middle Ages|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/bubonic-plague-was-serial-visitor-european-middle-ages|last= Baggaley |first=Kate |date=24 February 2015|magazine=Science News|access-date=24 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224160907/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/bubonic-plague-was-serial-visitor-european-middle-ages|archive-date=24 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Schmid|Büntgen|Easterday|Ginzler|2015}}}} Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, pre-existing malnutrition weakened the immune response, contributing to an immense decline in European population.<ref name="Baten">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Baten J, Koepke N|date=2005|title=The Biological Standard of Living in Europe during the Last Two Millennia|url=https://academic.oup.com/ereh/issue.|journal=European Review of Economic History|volume=9|issue=1|pages=61–95|via=EBSCO|doi=10.1017/S1361491604001388|hdl=10419/47594|hdl-access=free|access-date=4 February 2020|archive-date=13 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213222853/https://academic.oup.com/ereh/issue.|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
====West Asian and North African outbreak====
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The pandemic spread westwards from Alexandria along the African coast, while in April 1348 [[Tunis]] was infected by ship from Sicily. Tunis was then under attack by an army from Morocco; this army dispersed in 1348 and brought the contagion with them to Morocco, whose epidemic may also have been seeded from the Islamic city of [[Almería]] in [[al-Andalus]].<ref name=":6" />
[[Mecca]] became infected in 1348 by pilgrims performing the [[Hajj]].<ref name=":6" /> In 1351 or 1352, the [[Rasulid dynasty|Rasulid]] sultan of the [[Yemen]], al-Mujahid Ali, was released from Mamluk captivity in Egypt and carried plague with him on his return home.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = Sadek N |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P-pGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT956|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia – Volume II: L–Z|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|isbn=978-1-351-66813-2| veditors = Meri J |language=en|chapter=Rasulids|access-date=8 May 2020|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727114216/https://books.google.com/books?id=P-pGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT956|url-status=live}}</ref> During 1349, records show the city of [[Mosul]] suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of [[Baghdad]] experienced a second round of the disease.<ref>{{Citation |title=The Black Death and the Rise of the Ottomans |date=2014 |work=Natural Disasters in the Ottoman Empire: Plague, Famine, and Other Misfortunes |pages=21–60 |editor-last=Ayalon |editor-first=Yaron |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/natural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire/black-death-and-the-rise-of-the-ottomans/D83E412C0BB3C092E79683722AFFFC33 |access-date=2024-03-02 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139680943.004 |isbn=978-1-107-07297-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
===Signs and symptoms===
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[[File:World distribution of plague 1998.PNG|thumb|Worldwide distribution of plague-infected animals, 1998]]
The third plague pandemic (
Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney. This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus ''Yersinia pestis''.<ref>[http://sydney.edu.au/medicine/museum/mwmuseum/index.php/Bubonic_Plague_comes_to_Sydney_in_1900 Bubonic Plague comes to Sydney in 1900] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210023117/http://sydney.edu.au/medicine/museum/mwmuseum/index.php/Bubonic_Plague_comes_to_Sydney_in_1900 |date=10 February 2012 }}, University of Sydney, Sydney Medical School</ref>
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* {{cite book | vauthors = Sloane B |title=The Black Death in London |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-7524-2829-1 |place=London |publisher=The History Press Ltd }}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Snowden FM | title = Epidemics and Society: From the Black Death to the Present | place = New Haven, Connecticut | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 2019 | isbn = 978-0-300-19221-6}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Spyrou MA, Tukhbatova RI, Wang CC, Valtueña AA, Lankapalli AK, Kondrashin VV, Tsybin VA, Khokhlov A, Kühnert D, Herbig A, Bos KI, Krause J | display-authors = 6 | title = Analysis of 3800-year-old Yersinia pestis genomes suggests Bronze Age origin for bubonic plague | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 9 | issue = 1 |
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Spyrou MA, Keller M, Tukhbatova RI, Scheib CL, Nelson EA, Andrades Valtueña A, Neumann GU, Walker D, Alterauge A, Carty N, Cessford C, Fetz H, Gourvennec M, Hartle R, Henderson M, von Heyking K, Inskip SA, Kacki S, Key FM, Knox EL, Later C, Maheshwari-Aplin P, Peters J, Robb JE, Schreiber J, Kivisild T, Castex D, Lösch S, Harbeck M, Herbig A, Bos KI, Krause J | display-authors = 6 | title = Phylogeography of the second plague pandemic revealed through analysis of historical Yersinia pestis genomes | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 4470 | date = October 2019 | pmid = 31578321 | pmc = 6775055 | doi = 10.1038/s41467-019-12154-0 | author18 = S Kacki | author19 = FM Key | author16 = K von Heyking | author17 = SA Inskip | author14 = R Hartle | author15 = M Henderson | author12 = H Fetz | author13 = M Gourvennec | author10 = N Carty | author11 = C Cessford | author5 = EA Nelson | author6 = A Andrades Valtueña | author7 = GU Neumann | author8 = D Walker | author9 = A Alterauge A | bibcode = 2019NatCo..10.4470S | author30 = A Herbig | author31 = KI Bos | author32 = J Krause | author29 = M Harbeck M | author28 = S Lösch | author23 = J Peters | author22 = P Maheshwari-Aplin | author21 = C Later | author20 = EL Knox | author27 = D Castex | author26 = T Kivisild | author25 = J Schreiber | author24 = JE Robb }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Sussman GD | title = Was the black death in India and China? | journal = Bulletin of the History of Medicine | volume = 85 | issue = 3 | pages = 319–355 | year = 2011 | pmid = 22080795 | doi = 10.1353/bhm.2011.0054 | s2cid = 41772477 | url = https://academicworks.cuny.edu/lg_pubs/52 | access-date = 1 February 2022 | archive-date = 5 April 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220405101419/https://academicworks.cuny.edu/lg_pubs/52/ | url-status = live | url-access = subscription }}
* {{Cite book | vauthors = Tignor A, Brown E, Liu P, Shaw R, Jeremy P, Benjamin X, Holly B |title=Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, Volume 1: Beginnings to the 15th Century |publisher=W.W Norton & Company|year=2014|isbn=978-0-393-92208-0|___location=New York, London}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Tuchman B |author-link=Barbara Tuchman |year=1978 |title=A Distant Mirror |publisher=Knopf |isbn=0-394-40026-7}}
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[[Category:Black Death| ]]
[[Category:Plague pandemics]]
[[Category:1340s]]
[[Category:1350s]]
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