Oracle bone script: Difference between revisions

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{{short description|Ancient form of written Chinese}}

{{Merge from|Oraculology|date=March 2024}}

{{Infobox writing system

| name = Oracle bone script

| type = [[Logographic]]

| languages = [[Old Chinese]]

| time = {{circa|1250|1050 BC}}

| children = [[Seal script]]

| sample = Shang Inscribed Ox Scapula (for divination).jpg

| imagesize = 244px

| note = none

| direction = Top-to-bottom vertically

}}

{{Infobox Chinese

| c = 甲骨文

| p = Jiǎgǔjiǎgǔ wén

| w = {{tone superscripttonesup|Chia3-ku3 wen2}}

| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|j|ia|3|.|g|u|3|-|wen|2}}

| j = gaap3 gwat1 man4

| y = Gaapgwātgaapgwāt màhn

| ci = {{IPAc-yue|g|aap|3|-|gw|at|1|-|m|an|4}}

| poj = Kahkah-kut bûn

| wuu = Chiaʔchiaʔ-kueʔ ven

| h = {{tonesup|Gap5-gut5 vun2}}

| h = Gap⁵-gut⁵ vun²

| l = Shellshell and bone script

| bpmf = {{bpmfsp|ㄐㄧㄚˇ |ㄍㄨˇ |ㄨㄣˊ}}

| gr = Jeaguujeaguu wen

| tp = Jiǎjiǎ-gǔ wún

}}

{{Table Hanzi}}

'''Oracle bone script''' is the oldest attested form of [[written Chinese]], dating to the late 2nd millennium BC. Inscriptions were made by carving [[Chinese characters|characters]] into [[oracle bone]]s, usually either the shoulder bones of oxen or the [[Turtle shell#Plastron|plastraplastrons of turtles]]. The writings themselves mainly record the results of official divinations carried out on behalf of the ruling [[Late Shang dynasty]] royal family. These divinations took the form of ''[[scapulimancy]]'' where the oracle bones were exposed to flames, creating patterns of cracks that were then subjected to interpretation. Both the prompt and interpretation were inscribed on the same piece of bone that had been used for the divination itself.

Out of an estimated 150,000 inscriptions that have been uncovered, the vast majority were unearthed at [[Yinxu]], the site of the final Shang capital (modern-day [[Anyang]], Henan]]). The most recent major discovery was the Huayuanzhuang cache found near the site in 1993. Of the 1,608 Huayuanzhang pieces, 579 bear inscriptions.{{sfn|Shen|2002|p=86}} Each of the last nine Shang kings are named in the inscriptions{{efn|A few such shells and bones do not record divinations, but bear other records such as those of hunting trips, records of sacrifices, wars or other events , calendars, or practice inscriptions;{{harvnb|Xu|2002|pp=31, 34}} these are termed shell and bone inscriptions, rather than oracle bones, because no oracle (divination) was involved. However, they are still written in oracle bone script.}} beginning with [[Wu Ding]], whose accession is variously dated between 1250 and 1200&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |year=2002 |title=The Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project: Methodology and Results |journal=Journal of East Asian Archaeology |volume=4 |pages=321–333 |doi=10.1163/156852302322454585 |surname=Li |given=Xueqin | author-link= Li Xueqin (historian) | author-mask= Li Xueqin}}</ref>{{sfn|Keightley|1978|p=228}} Oracle bone inscriptions corresponding to Wu Ding's reign have been radiocarbon dated to 1254–1197&nbsp;BC (±10 years).<ref name="radiocarbon">{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Kexin |last2=Wu |first2=Xiaohong |last3=Guo |first3=Zhiyu |last4=Yuan |first4=Sixun |last5=Ding |first5=Xingfang |last6=Fu |first6=Dongpo |last7=Pan |first7=Yan |year=2020 |title=Radiocarbon Dating of Oracle Bones of the Late Shang Period in Ancient China |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/radiocarbon/article/radiocarbon-dating-of-oracle-bones-of-late-shang-period-in-ancient-china/38A7B64D6D538A3A7B96F912BBEE9592 |journal=[[Radiocarbon (journal)|Radiocarbon]] |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=155–175 |doi=10.1017/RDC.2020.90 |archivedoi-urlaccess=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314195458/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/radiocarbon/article/radiocarbon-dating-of-oracle-bones-of-late-shang-period-in-ancient-china/38A7B64D6D538A3A7B96F912BBEE9592free |archive-date=2022-03-14}}</ref> Following the overthrow of the Shang by the [[Zhou dynasty]] in {{Circacirca|1046 BC}}, divination using [[Achillea millefolium|milfoil]] became more common; far fewer oracle bone inscriptions are dated to the Western Zhou.<ref>{{cite book | isbn =978-0-300-13033-1 | last= Nylan, | first=Michael| (author-link= Michael Nylan| date=2001).|title =The fiveFive "Confucian" classics,Classics| p.chapter= The Changes (Yi 易) | publisher = Yale University Press| page= 217 | jstor= j.ctt1nq7hj.9}}</ref> No Zhou-era sites with a comparable cache of inscriptions to Yinxu have been found; however, examples from this period appear to be more widespread, having been found near most major population centers. New sites have continued to be discovered since 2000.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Flad |first=Rowan K. |year=2008 |title=Divination and Power: A Multiregional View of the Development of Oracle Bone Divination in Early China |journal=Current Anthropology |language=en |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=403–437 |doi=10.1086/588495 |issn=0011-3204 |s2cid=62795316}}</ref>

The oracle bone inscriptions—along with several roughly contemporaneous bronzeware inscriptions using a different style—constitute the earliest corpus of Chinese writing, and are the direct ancestor of the [[Chinese family of scripts]] developed over the next three millennia.{{sfn|Boltz|1994|p=31}} Their study is essential for the research of Chinese [[etymologies]]. It is also the direct ancestor of over a dozen East Asian writing systems. The length of inscriptions ranges from 10 to over 100 characters, but a few dozen is typical. The subjects of concern in inscriptions are broad, and include war, ritual sacrifice, and agriculture, as well as births, illnesses, and deaths in the royal family. As such, they provide invaluable insights into the character of late Shang society. [[Oraculology]] is the study of [[oracle bone]]s and oracle bone script.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Wang |first1=Yuxin |last2=Wei |first2=Jianzhen |publisher=[[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-7-500-48878-1 |___location=Beijing |script-title=zh:甲骨学导论 |trans-title=History of China historiography |oclc=690131145 |author-mask=Wang Yuxin (王宇信) |author-mask2=Wei Jianzhen (魏建震) |language=zh}}</ref>

== Name ==

[[File:Shang-Orakelknochen_excerpt_adjusted_for_contrast.jpg|thumb|Fragments of divination on [[Scapula|bull scapula]]]]

The common Chinese term for oracle bone script is {{lang|zh|甲骨文}} ({{transliteration|zh|jiǎgǔwén}} 'shell and bone script'), which is an abbreviation of {{lang|zh|龜甲獸骨文字}} ({{transliteration|zh|guījiǎ shòugǔ wénzì}} 'turtle-shell and animal-bone script'). This term is a translation of the English phrase "inscriptions upon bone and tortoise shell", which had been coined by the American missionary Frank H. Chalfant (1862–1914) in his 1906 book ''Early Chinese Writing'', which first appeared in Chinese books during the 1930s.{{sfnp|Wilkinson|2015|p=681}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chalfant |first=Frank H. |url=https://archive.org/details/earlychinesewrit00chalrich |title=Early Chinese Writing |publisher=Carnegie Institute |year=1906 |___location=Pittsburgh |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlychinesewrit00chalrich/page/30 30]}}</ref>

In earlier decades, Chinese authors used a variety of names for the inscriptions based on the name of [[Yinxu]], their purpose ({{lang|zh|卜}} {{transliteration|zh|bǔ}} 'to divine'), or the method of inscription ({{lang|zh|契}} {{transliteration|zh|qì}} 'to engrave'). One previously common term was {{lang|zh|殷墟卜辭}} ({{transliteration|zh|Yīnxū bǔcí}} 'Yinxu divinatory texts'). {{sfnp|Wilkinson|2015|p=681}}

The common Chinese term for oracle bone script is {{lang|zh|甲骨文}} ({{transliterationtlit|zh|jiǎgǔwén}} 'shell and bone script'), which is an abbreviation of {{lang|zh|龜甲獸骨文字}} ({{transliterationtlit|zh|guījiǎ shòugǔ wénzì}} 'turtle-shell and animal-bone script'). This term is a translation of the English phrase "inscriptions upon bone and tortoise shell", which had been coined by the American missionary Frank H. Chalfant (1862–1914) in his 1906 book ''Early Chinese Writing'', which first appeared in Chinese books during the 1930s.{{sfnp|Wilkinson|2015|p=681}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chalfant |first=Frank H. |url=https://archive.org/details/earlychinesewrit00chalrich |title=Early Chinese Writing |publisher=Carnegie Institute |year=1906 |___location=Pittsburgh, PA |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlychinesewrit00chalrich/page/30 30]}}</ref>

In earlier decades, Chinese authors used a variety of names for the inscriptions based on the name of [[Yinxu]], their purpose ({{lang|zh|卜}} {{transliterationtlit|zh|bǔ}} 'to divine'), or the method of inscription ({{lang|zh|契}} {{transliterationtlit|zh|qì}} 'to engrave'). OneA previously common term was {{lang|zh|殷墟卜辭}} ({{transliterationtlit|zh|Yīnxū bǔcí}} 'Yinxu divinatory texts'). {{sfnpSfnp|Wilkinson|2015|p=681}}

===Oraculology===

'''Oraculology''' ({{zhi|s=甲骨学|t=甲骨學|p=jiǎgǔxué}}) is the study of [[oracle bone]]s and oracle bone script. It is a humanities discipline that focuses on the [[History of China|Chinese Upper Antiquity]] oracle characters. Oracle bone science can be divided into a narrow sense of oracle bone science and a broad sense of oracle bone science. In the narrow sense, the study of oracle bone script is limited to the study of oracle bone script itself, and it is a discipline of [[Grammatology|paleography]]. This includes the integration of theories, research methods and materials from various disciplines, such as paleography, history, archaeology, historical culture, historical literature, and cultural anthropology, to thoroughly study the historical and cultural background of the oracle bones and some of the patterns of the oracle bone divination. It is a diversified and specialized discipline.<ref name="wang-2010a">{{Cite book |last1=Wang |first1=Yuxin |last2=Wei |first2=Jianzhen |publisher=[[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-7-5004-8878-1 |___location=Beijing |script-title=zh:甲骨学导论 |trans-title=Introduction to Oraculology |author-mask=Wang Yuxin (王宇信); |author-mask2=Wei Jianzhen (魏建震) |language=zh}}</ref> In the early days of oracle bone discovery, oracle bones were called ''qiwen'', and the study of oracle bones was called ''qiology''. In 1931, Zhou Yitong proposed for the first time that "oracle bone science" was an independent discipline.<ref name="wang-2010a" /> Wang Yuxin emphasized that oracle bones are precious cultural relics and historical materials left over from the ancient period, but their value for archaeological and historical research lies in orthography beyond script interpretation, which has become increasingly recognized by scholars as orthography develops. Oracle bone science is a systematic and scientific inquiry into the inherent laws of the oracle bone script itself and uses it as a basis for glimpsing the history, society, and customs of the ancient world. The oracle bones should not be confused with [[orthography]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wang|first=Yunxin |author-mask=Wang Yuxin (王宇信)|script-title=zh:甲骨学通论 |trans-title=General Theory of Oraculology |year=1999 |publisher=[[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] |isbn=978-7-5004-0329-6 |pages=3–4 |language=zh}}</ref>

== Origins ==

{{main|Neolithic symbols in China}}

It is generally agreed that the tradition of writing represented by oracle bone script existed prior to the first known examples, due to the attested script's mature state. Many characters had already undergone extensive simplifications and linearizations, and techniques of semantic extension and phonetic loaning had also clearly been used by authors for some time, perhaps centuries. However, no clearly identifiable examples of writing dating prior to the 13th century&nbsp;BC have been discovered. Sets of inscribed symbols on pottery, jade, and bone that have been discovered at a variety of Neolithic archeological sites across China have not been demonstrated to have any direct or indirect ancestry to the Shang oracle bone script at Anyang.{{sfn|Qiu|2000}}

== Style ==

Line 47 ⟶ 52:

[[File:Oracle mu4 eye.svg|thumb|upright=0.2|Oracle bone form of {{zhi|c=目}} 'eye']]

{{stack end}}

Along with itsthe contemporary [[bronzeware script]], the oracle bone script of the [[Late Shang]] period appears pictographic. The earliest oracle bone script appears even more so than examples from late in the period (thus some evolution did occur over the roughly 200-year period).{{sfn|Qiu|2000|p=64}} Comparing the oracle bone script to both Shang and early [[Western Zhou]] period writing on bronzes, the oracle bone script is clearly greatly simplified, and rounded forms are often converted to rectilinear ones; this is thought to be due to the difficulty of engraving the bone's hard surface, compared with the ease of writing them in the wet clay of the molds the bronzes were cast from. The more detailed and more pictorial style of the bronze graphs is thought to be more representative of typical Shang writing using bamboo books than the oracle bone forms; this typical style continued to evolve into writing styles of the Western Zhou period, and then into the [[seal script]] within the [[state of Qin]].

[[File:Shang_Bronze_and_Oracle_Script.svg|thumb|upright=0.75|left|Comparison of characters in the Shang bronzeware script (first and fourth rows), oracle bone script (second and fifth rows), and [[regular script]] (third and sixth rows)]]

It is known that the Shang people also wrote with brush and ink, as brush-written graphs have been found on a small number of pottery, shell and bone, and jade and other stone items,{{sfn|Qiu|2000|p=63}} and there is evidence that they also wrote on bamboo (or wooden) books{{efn|There are no such bamboo books extant before the late Zhou, however, as the materials were not permanent enough to survive.}} just like those found from the late Zhou to [[Han dynasty|Han]] periods, because the graphs for a writing brush ({{zhi|c=聿}} {{transliterationtlit|zh|yù}}, depicting a hand holding a writing brush{{efn|The modern word {{zhi|c=筆}} {{transliterationtlit|zh|bĭ}} is derived from a [[Qin (state)|Qin]] dialectal variant of this word {{harvnb|Baxter|Sagart|2014|pp=42–43}}.}}) and bamboo book ({{zhi|c=冊}} {{transliterationtlit|zh|cè}}, a book of thin [[bamboo and wooden slips]] bound with horizontal strings, like a [[Venetian blind]] turned 90 degrees), are present in oracle bone inscriptions.{{sfnm|Qiu|2000|1p=63|Xu|2002|2p=12}}{{efn|As {{harvnb|Qiu|2000|pp=62–63}} notes, the ''Shangshu''{{'s}} "Duoshi" chapter also refers to use of such books by the Shang.}}

It is known that the Shang people also wrote with brush and ink, as brush-written graphs have been found on a small number of pottery, shell and bone, and jade and other stone items,{{sfn|Qiu|2000|p=63}} and there is evidence that they also wrote on bamboo (or wooden) books{{efn|There are no such bamboo books extant before the late Zhou, however, as the materials were not permanent enough to survive.}} just like those found from the late Zhou to [[Han dynasty|Han]] periods, because the graphs for a writing brush ({{zhi|c=聿}} {{transliteration|zh|yù}}, depicting a hand holding a writing brush{{efn|The modern word {{zhi|c=筆}} {{transliteration|zh|bĭ}} is derived from a [[Qin (state)|Qin]] dialectal variant of this word {{harvnb|Baxter|Sagart|2014|pp=42–43}}.}}) and bamboo book ({{zhi|c=冊}} {{transliteration|zh|cè}}, a book of thin [[bamboo and wooden slips]] bound with horizontal strings, like a [[Venetian blind]] turned 90 degrees), are present in oracle bone inscriptions.{{sfnm|Qiu|2000|1p=63|Xu|2002|2p=12}}{{efn|As {{harvnb|Qiu|2000|pp=62–63}} notes, the ''Shangshu''{{'s}} "Duoshi" chapter also refers to use of such books by the Shang.}}

[[File:Heji 37986 Ganzhi table (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.66|Table of the Chinese sexagenary cycle inscribed on an ox scapula, dating to the reigns of the last two kings of the Shang dynasty during the first half of the 11th century&nbsp;BC]]

Line 64 ⟶ 68:

[[File:Chinese character Shang oracle 犬 quan3 dog.svg|upright=0.2|thumb|{{zhi|c=犬}} 'dog']]

{{stack end}}

Despite the pictorial nature of the oracle bone script, it was a fully functional and mature writing system by the time of the Shang dynasty,{{sfnm|Boltz|1994|1p=31|Qiu|2000|2p=29}} meaning it was able to record the [[Old Chinese language]] language, and not merely fragments of ideas or words. This level of maturity clearly implies an earlier period of development of at least several hundred years.{{efn|Boltz surmises that the Chinese script was invented around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, i.e. very roughly ca. 1500 BC, induring the early Shang, and based on the currently available evidence declares attempts to push this date earlier "unsubstantiated speculation and wishful thinking". {{harvnb|Boltz|1994|p=39}}}} From their presumed origins as pictographs and signs, by the Shang dynasty, most graphs were already conventionalized{{sfn|Boltz|1994|p=55}} in such a simplified fashion that the meanings of many of the pictographs are not immediately apparent. Compare, for instance, the pictographs to the right. Without careful research to compare these to later forms, one would probably not know that these represented {{zhi|c=豕}} 'swine' and {{zhi|c=犬}} 'dog' respectively. As William G. Boltz notes, most of the oracle bone graphs are not depicted realistically enough for those who do not already know the script to recognize what they stand for; although pictographic ''in origin'', they are no longer pictographs {{em|in function}}. Boltz instead calls them ''zodiographs'', emphasizing their function as representing concepts exclusively through {{em|words}}.{{sfn|Boltz|1994|pp=31–33}} Similarly, Qiu labels them ''semantographs''.{{sfn|Qiu|2000|p=63}}

By the late Shang, oracle bone graphs had already evolved into mostly non-pictographic forms,{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}} including all the [[Chinese character classification|major types of Chinese characters]] now in use. Phonetic loan graphsLoangraphs, phono-semantic-phonetic compounds, and associative compounds were already common. One structural and functional analysis of the oracle bone characters found that they were 23% pictographs, 2% simple indicatives, 32% associative compounds, 11% phonetic loans, 27% phoneticphono-semantic compounds, and 6% uncertainundetermined.{{efn|{{harvnb|Li|1968|p=95}}, cited in {{harvnb|Woon|1987}}; the percentages do not add up to 100% due to rounding; see [[Chinese character classification]] for explanations of the various types listed here.}}

[[File:Comparison of Chinese characters for autumn.svg|thumb|left|upright=0.6|Comparison of oracle bone script, large and small [[seal scripts]], and [[regular script]] characters for 'autumn' ({{zhi|c=秋}}) 'autumn']]

Although it was a fully functional writing system, the oracle bone script was not fully standardized. By the early [[Western Zhou]] period, these traits had vanished, but in both periods, the script was not highly regular or standardized; variant forms of graphs abound, and the size and orientation of graphs is also irregular. A graph when inverted horizontally generally refers to the same word, and additional components are sometimes present without changing the meaning. These irregularities persisted until the standardization of the [[seal script]] induring the [[Qin dynasty]].

There are over 30,000 distinct characters found from all the bone fragments so far, which may represent around 4,000 individual characters in their various forms. The majority of these still remain undeciphered, although scholars believe they can decipher between 1,500 and 2,000 of these characters.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} One reason for the difficulty in decipherment is that components of certain oracle bone script characters may differ in later script forms. Such differences may be accounted for by character simplification and/or by later generations misunderstanding the original graph, which had evolved beyond recognition. For instance, the standard character for 'autumn' ({{zhi|c=秋}}) 'autumn' now appears with 'plantthe stalk'components ({{zhi|c=禾}}) as'plant one componentstalk' and 'fire' ({{zhi|c=火}}) as another component'fire', whereas the oracle bone script form of the character depicts an insect-like figure with [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]] – either a [[Cricket (insect)|cricket]]<ref>{{Cite webencyclopedia |title=秋 in |encyclopedia=Multi-function Chinese Character Database (漢語多功能字庫) |url=http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-mf/search.php?word=%E7%A7%8B |lang=zh}}</ref> or a [[locust]] – with a variant depicting fire [[File:火-oracle.svg|13px]] below said figure. In this case, the modern character is a simplification of an archaic variant {{lang|zh|𪛁}} (or {{lang|zh|𥤚}})<ref>''[[Shuowen Jiezi]]'' entry for [http://www.shuowen.org/view/4430 秋 (秌)]: 从禾，省聲。𪛁，籒文不省。</ref> which is closer to the oracle bone script form – albeit with the insect figure being confused with the similar-looking character for 'turtle' ({{zhi|c=龜}}) 'turtle' and the addition of the {{zhi|c=禾}} component.

[[File:OracleSpring.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Oracle bone script fragment featuring a character for 'spring' in the top-left which has no known modern descendant]]

Another reason is that someSome characters are only attested {{em|only}} in the oracle bone script, dropping out of later usage and usually being replaced by newer characters. An example is a fragment bearing character for 'spring' that has no known modern counterpart. In such cases, available context may be used to determine the possible meaning of the character. In other cases, the character may be assumed to be a [[Chinese character classification|phono-semantic compound]], and a rough meaning can be inferred based on the semantic component. For instance, an oracle bone character was recently found which consists of {{zhi|c=礻}} on the left and {{zhi|c=升}} on the right ([{{zhi|c=礻升}}] when converted from oracle bone forms to their modern printed equivalents). This character may reasonably be guessed to a compound with {{zhi|c=示}} ('altar') as the semantic and {{zhi|c=升}} (modern reading ''sheng'') as the phonetic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wang |first=Entian |date=2015-08-27 |title=王恩田：王獻唐先生征集甲骨文考釋 |url=http://www.gwz.fudan.edu.cn/Web/Show/2582 |website=Online Journal of the Fudan University Center for Unearthed Texts and Paleography (复旦大学出土文献与古文字研究中心 |language=zh}}</ref> Though no modern character consists of these two components, it likely refers to a type of Shang dynasty ritual with a name similar to the pronunciation of {{zhi|c=升}} in Old Chinese.{{efn|This character was found on one of nine oracle bone fragments in the Shandong Provincial Museum's collection. The full inscription reads:

{{blockquote|{{lang|zh|丁未卜，王[礻升]叀父戊？}}}}

This was the first time that the graph {{angbr|{{lang|zh|礻升}}}} had been attested attested in oracle bone inscriptions. Wang translated the sentence as: "Prognostication on the day ''dingwei'': if the king performs the ''sheng'' sacrifice, will it benefit Ancestor Wu?" The newly found graph was tentatively assigned the same modern reading as the phonetic component {{zhi|c=升}}.}} In the same collection of fragments, the character {{angbr|阝心}} was surmised to be a place name, since the semantic component {{zhi|c=阜}} means 'mound', 'hill', and the divination concerned the king traveling for a [[royal hunt]].{{efn|The full inscription: {{lang|zh|戊寅卜，旅貞：王其于[阝心]，亡災？}}

Translation: Prognostication on the day ''wuyin'' by Diviner Lü: if the king travels to [placename, possibly read ''xin''], will there be harm?}}

Line 84 ⟶ 88:

[[File:Oracle bone graphs rotated 90 degrees.svg|center|frame|Oracle bone script forms, from the left: {{lang|zh|馬}} 'horse', {{lang|zh|虎}} 'tiger', {{lang|zh|豕}} 'swine', {{lang|zh|犬}} 'dog', {{lang|zh|鼠}} 'rat', {{lang|zh|象}} 'elephant', {{lang|zh|豸}} 'beasts of prey', {{lang|zh|龜}} 'turtle', {{lang|zh|爿}} 'low table', {{lang|zh|為}} 'to lead', and {{lang|zh|疾}} 'illness']]

== During the Zhou-era dynastyinscriptions ==

{{Further|Chinese bronze inscriptions}}

[[File:Zhou-inscription.png|thumb|right|upright|Hand copy of a Zhou inscription{{sfnm|Liu|1989|1p=67|Gao|1996|2p=327}}]]

Line 94 ⟶ 98:

Among the major scholars making significant contributions to the study of the oracle bone writings, especially early on, were:{{sfn|Xu|2002|pp=16–19}}

* [[Wang Yirong]] recognized the characters as being ancient Chinese writing in 1899.

* [[Liu E (writer)|Liu E]] collected five thousand oracle bone fragments, published the first collection of 1,058 rubbings entitled ''Tieyun Canggui'' ({{lang|zh|鐵雲藏龜}}, Tie Yun's [i.e., Liu E] Repository of Turtles) in 1903,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Creamer |first=Thomas B. I. |title=History, languages, and lexicographers |publisher=De Gruyter |year=1992 |isbn=978-3-11111-34107134107-1 |editor-last=Zgusta |editor-first=Ladislav |page=108 |chapter=Lexicography and the history of the Chinese language}}</ref> and correctly identified thirty-four characters.

* [[Sun Yirang]] was the first serious researcher of oracle bones.

* [[Luo Zhenyu]] collected over 30,000 oracle bones and published several volumes, identified the names of the Shang kings, and thus positively identified the oracle bones as being artifacts from the Shang reign.

Line 103 ⟶ 107:

== Computer encoding ==

A proposal to include the oracle bone script in [[Unicode]] is being prepared.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-10-21 |title=L2/15-280: Request for comment on encoding Oracle Bone Script |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2015/15280-n4687-oracle-bone.pdf |access-date=2016-01-23 |publisher=Working Group Document, ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 and UTC}}</ref>{{update inline|date=July 2022}} [[CodepointCode point]]s U+35400 through U35400–U+36BFF in Unicode [[Plane (Unicode)|Plane]] 3 (the Tertiary Ideographic Plane) have been tentatively allocated.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-01-21 |title=Roadmap to the TIP |url=http://unicode.org/roadmaps/tip/ |access-date=2016-01-23 |publisher=[[Unicode Consortium]]}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

Line 119 ⟶ 123:

File:Shang numerals.jpg|Shang oracle bone numerals<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Needham |first1=Joseph |title=The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: An Abridgement of Joseph Needham's Original Text |last2=Ronan |first2=Colin A. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-521-21821-4 |page=6, Table 20}}</ref>

</gallery>

== See also ==

* [[Chinese family of scripts]]

== Notes ==

{{notelistNotelist}}

== References ==

=== Citations ===

{{reflistReflist|25em}}

=== Bibliography ===

{{Refbegin|30em}}

* {{Cite book |last1=Baxter |first1=William H. |author-link=William H. Baxter |title=Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction |last2=Sagart |first2=Laurent |author-link2=Laurent Sagart |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19919-94537994537-5}}

* {{Cite book |last=Boltz |first=William G. |author-link=William G. Boltz |title=The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing System |publisher=American Oriental Society |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-940940490-4901818-5 |___location=New Haven, CT |ref={{sfnref|Boltz|1994}} |orig-date=1994}}

* {{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Zhaorong |publisher=Academia Sinica |year=2003 |isbn=978-9957-576671-71995995-0 |___location=Taipei |script-title=zh:秦系文字研究﹕从漢字史的角度考察 |trans-title=Research on the Qin Lineage of Writing: An Examination from the Perspective of the History of Chinese Writing |author-mask=Chen Zhaorong (陳昭容) |language=zh}}

* {{Cite book |last=Demattè |first=Paola |title=The Origins of Chinese Writing |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-19719-63576763576-6}}

* {{Cite book |last=Gao |first=Ming |publisher=Beijing University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-7-301-02285-6 |___location=Beijing |script-title=zh:中国古文字学通论 |trans-title=General Introduction to Chinese Paleography |author-mask=Gao Ming (高明) |language=zh}}

* {{Cite book |last=Keightley |first=David N. |author-link=David Keightley |title=Sources of Shang History: The Oracle-Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China |publisher=University of California Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-520-02969-9 |___location=Berkeley |ref={{sfnref|Keightley|1978}} |orig-date=1978}}

* {{Cite book |last=Keightley |first=David N. |title=The Ancestral Landscape: Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China (ca. 1200–1045 B.C.) |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-55729-070-0 |___location=Berkeley |author-mask=3}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Xiaoding |author-mask=Li Xiaoding (李孝定) |year=1968 |script-title=zh:從六書的觀點看甲骨文字 |trans-title=Looking at Shell and Bone Inscriptions From the Point of View of the ''Liu Shu'' |journal=Nanyang Daxue Xuebao |language=zh |pages=84–106}}

* {{Cite book |last=Liu |first=Xinglong |publisher=Wenshizhe chubanshe |year=1997 |isbn=978-7-80180173-73355355-9 |___location=Beijing |language=zh |script-title=zh:新编甲骨文字典 |trans-title=New Oracle Bone Dictionary |author-mask=Liu Xinglong (刘兴隆)}}

* {{Cite book |publisher=Yuwen chubanshe |year=1989 |isbn=978-7-80080006-06238238-4 |editor-last=Liu |editor-first=Xiang |editor-mask=Liu Xiang (刘翔) |___location=Beijing |script-title=zh:商周古文字读本 |trans-title=Reader of Shang–Zhou Ancient Characters |ref={{sfnref|Liu|1989}} |editor-last2=Li |editor-first2=Xueqin |display-editors=etal |language=zh}}

* {{Cite book |last=Qiu |first=Xigui |author-link=Qiu Xigui |title=Chinese Writing |publisher=Society for the Study of Early China and The Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-55755729-29071071-7 |___location=Berkeley |translator-last=Mattos |translator-first=Gilbert L. |author-mask=Qiu Xigui (裘锡圭) |orig-date=1988 |translator-last2=Norman |translator-first2=Jerry}}

* {{Cite book |title=Anyang and Sanxingdui: Unveiling the Mysteries of Ancient Chinese Civilizations |publisher=Royal Ontario Museum |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-88888854-54441441-4 |editor-last=Shen |editor-first=Chen |___location=Toronto}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Thorp |first=Robert L. |year=1981 |title=The Date of Tomb 5 at Yinxu, Anyang: A Review Article |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=239–246 |doi=10.2307/3249839 |jstor=3249839}}

* {{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Endymion |author-link=Endymion Wilkinson |title=Chinese History: A New Manual |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-674-08846-7 |edition=4th |___location=Cambridge, MA}}

* {{Cite book |last=Wu |first=Teresa L. |title=The Origin and Dissemination of Chinese Characters |publisher=Caves Books |year=1990 |isbn=978-9957-576606-06002002-1 |___location=Taipei |script-title=zh:中國文字只起源與繁衍 |trans-title=The Origin and Dissemination of Chinese Characters |language=zh}}

* {{Cite book |title=Ancient Chinese Writing, Oracle Bone Inscriptions from the Ruins of Yin |publisher=National Palace Museum |year=2002 |isbn=978-9957-575562-62420420-0 |editor-last=Xu |editor-first=Yahui |editor-mask=Xu Yahui (許雅惠) |___location=Taipei |translator-last=Caltonhill |translator-first=Mark |translator-last2=Moser |translator-first2=Jeff}}

* {{Cite book |last=Woon |first=Wee Lee |title=Chinese writing: its origin and evolution |publisher=University of East Asia Press |year=1987 |___location=Macau |oclc=21757249}}

* {{Cite book |last=Zhao |first=Cheng |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/460384170 |publisher=Zhonghua shuju |year=2009 |isbn=978-7-101-00254-6 |___location=Beijing |script-title=zh:甲骨文簡明詞典——卜辭分類讀本 |trans-title=Concise Reader of Oracle Bone Inscription Classifications |oclc=460384170 |ref={{sfnref|Zhao|1988}} |author-mask=Zhao Cheng (趙誠) |orig-date=1988 |language=zh}}

{{Refend}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category}}

* {{Cite book |last=Luo |first=Zhenyu |author-link=Luo Zhenyu |url=https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28Yin%20xu%20shu%20qi%29 |title=Yīnxū shūqì |year=1912 |script-title=zh:殷虛書契 |trans-title=Yinxu inscriptions}}

* {{Cite book |last=Menzies |first=James Mellon |url=https://archive.org/details/cihm_990806 |title=Oracle records from the Waste of Yin |publisher=Kelly and Walsh |year=1917 |isbn=978-0-659-90806-3 |___location=Shanghai}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Oracle Bone Script}}

[[Category:Divination]]

[[Category:Chinese script style]]

[[Category:Shang dynasty]]

[[Category:Obsolete writing systems]]

[[Category:Oraculology]]

[[Category:DivinationShang dynasty]]

[[Category:Yinxu]]