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{{Short description|Act of rehearsing a behaviour repeatedly}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2021}}
{{Distinguish|Praxis (process)}}
'''Practice''' is the act of rehearsing a behavior repeatedly, to help [[Learning|learn]] and eventually master a [[skill]]. Sessions scheduled for the purpose of rehearsing and performance improvement are called '''practices'''. They are engaged in by sports teams, bands, individuals, etc., as in, "He went to football practice every day after school".▼
In [[British English]], ''practice'' is the [[noun]] and ''practise'' is the [[verb]], but in [[American English]] it is now common for ''practice'' to be used both as a noun and a verb (see [[American and British English spelling differences#-ce, -se|American and British English spelling differences]]; this article follows
'''Practice''' is the act of rehearsing a behaviour repeatedly, to help [[Learning|learn]] and eventually master a [[skill]]. The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] "πρακτική" (''praktike''), feminine of "πρακτικός" (''praktikos''), "fit for or concerned with action, practical",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpraktiko%2Fs πρακτικός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from the verb "πράσσω" (''prasso''), "to achieve, bring about, effect, accomplish".<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpra%2Fssw πράσσω], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>▼
==Etymology==
▲In [[British English]], ''practice'' is the [[noun]] and ''practise'' is the verb, but in [[American English]] it is now common for ''practice'' to be used both as a noun and a verb (see [[American and British English spelling differences#-ce, -se|American and British English spelling differences]]; this article follows the British distinction).
▲The word "''practice'
▲Sessions scheduled for the purpose of rehearsing and performance improvement are called '''practices'''. They are engaged in by sports teams, bands, individuals, etc., as in, "He went to football practice every day after school".
==Common types==
[[File:
[[File:ANCOP officers.jpg|thumb|ANCOP officer cadets
▲[[File:Bio2.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[musician]] practising his instrument.]]
▲[[File:ANCOP officers.jpg|thumb|ANCOP officer cadets practise detaining an armed insurgent at the Mazar-e Sharif Regional Training Center on December 12, 2010.]]
Some common ways practice is applied:
*To learn how to play a [[musical instrument]] ([[musical technique]])<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ericsson |first1=K. Anders |last2=Krampe |first2=Ralf T. |last3=Tesch-Römer |first3=Clemens |date=1993 |title=The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. |url=https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.100.3.363 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=363–406 |doi=10.1037/0033-295x.100.3.363 |issn=0033-295X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
*To improve athletic or team performance<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511816796/type/book |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance |date=2006-06-26 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-84097-2 |editor-last=Ericsson |editor-first=K. Anders |edition=1 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511816796 |editor-last2=Charness |editor-first2=Neil |editor-last3=Feltovich |editor-first3=Paul J. |editor-last4=Hoffman |editor-first4=Robert R.}}</ref>
*To prepare for a public performance within the performing arts
*To improve [[Reading (activity)|reading]], [[writing]], [[interpersonal communication]], [[typing]], [[grammar]], and [[spelling]]
*To enhance or refine a newly acquired skill<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Ericsson |first1=K. A. |last2=Lehmann |first2=A. C. |date=1996 |title=EXPERT AND EXCEPTIONAL PERFORMANCE: Evidence of Maximal Adaptation to Task Constraints |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.273 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=273–305 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.273 |pmid=15012483 |issn=0066-4308|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
*To maintain skill<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anders Ericsson |first=K. |date=2008 |title=Deliberate Practice and Acquisition of Expert Performance: A General Overview |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1553-2712.2008.00227.x |journal=Academic Emergency Medicine |language=en |volume=15 |issue=11 |pages=988–994 |doi=10.1111/j.1553-2712.2008.00227.x |issn=1069-6563|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
*To learn martial arts; [[kata]] and [[sparring]] are common forms of practice
*To master tasks associated with one's occupation (e.g. a cashier using a [[Point of sale system|POS system]])
How well one improves with practice depends on several factors, such as the frequency it is engaged in, and the type of feedback that is available for improvement.<ref name=":3" /> If feedback is not appropriate (either from an instructor or from self-reference to an information source), then the practice tends to be ineffective or even detrimental to learning.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Rousmaniere |first=Tony |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781003400622 |title=Deliberate Practice for Psychotherapists: A Guide to Improving Clinical Effectiveness |date=2024-07-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-40062-2 |edition=2 |___location=New York |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781003400622}}</ref> If a student does not
==Deliberate practice==
Psychologist [[K. Anders Ericsson]], a professor of Psychology at [[Florida State University]], was a pioneer in researching deliberate practice and what it means.<ref name=":5" /> According to Ericsson:
<blockquote>People believe that because expert performance is qualitatively different from a normal performance the expert performer must be endowed with characteristics qualitatively different from those of normal adults. [...] We agree that expert performance is qualitatively different from normal performance and even that expert performers have characteristics and abilities that are qualitatively different from or at least outside the range of those of normal adults. However, we deny that these differences are immutable, that is, due to innate talent. Only a few exceptions, most notably height, are genetically prescribed. Instead, we argue that the differences between expert performers and normal adults reflect a life-long period of deliberate effort to improve performance in a specific ___domain.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Ericsson |first1=K. Anders
One of Ericsson's core findings was that how expert one becomes at a skill has more to do with how one
Ericsson also believes that some anatomical characteristics were believed to be fixed traits in the past. Genes rarely dictate what traits will be. However, his study has proven that the characteristics have the ability to change and adapt in response to intense practice over multiple years. Ericsson's statements on practice also support the 10 year rule. Ericsson believes that elite performance is the product of maximal effort over at least a decade. The maximal effort is described as using deliberate practice in order to improve performance.<ref name=":0" />
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Duckworth describes how deliberate practice affects education, motivation, and learning outcomes.<ref name=":1" /> In a presentation she gave at the American Educational Research Conference in 2014,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aera.net/Events-Meetings/Annual-Meeting/Previous-Annual-Meetings/2014-Annual-Meeting/2014-Annual-Meeting-Webcasts/-Noncognitive-Factors-Affecting-Student-Success|title=Noncognitive Factors Affecting Student Success|website=www.aera.net|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-25}}</ref> she spoke about the importance of grit – of students' focusing on material with which they struggle. In her view, grit allows a student to persevere and succeed in the face of adversity. Duckworth says that if a student can apply grit in their academic work, their effort will increase. Duckworth says that effort is equally important as talent in achieving academic goals. In a study she conducted at the National Spelling Bee in Washington, D.C, she found that the students who used the grit tactic tended to advance to the finals.<ref name=":2" />
Two recent articles in ''[[Current Directions in Psychological Science]]''
This effect describes how different biases can affect an individual's performance. When someone is practising a skill, especially with deliberate practice, coaches play an important role in how their practices go. If a coach sets high expectations and encourages their learners, the individual is more likely to take more from practice and perform better. The role of coaches is important during deliberate practice. Coaches can strengthen desired behaviors through encouragement, positive reinforcement, and technical instruction. Fostering a positive learning environment through deliberate practice is key for all individuals involved. It is also important for coaches to lay out their practices with specific skill training, variable practice, and training of open and closed skills. These factors lead to an intentional, deliberate practice, which ultimately leads to better learning and performance.{{or|date=July 2025}}
According to the American Psychological Association, the purpose of deliberate practice is to achieve high levels of expert performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brabeck|first1=Mary|last2=Jeffrey|first2=Jill|last3=Fry|first3=Sara|title=Practice for Knowledge Acquisition (Not Drill and Kill)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e501912017-001|access-date=2021-10-11|website=PsycEXTRA Dataset|doi=10.1037/e501912017-001}}</ref> Studies also show that due to deliberate practice, an individual will experience high achievement. This is due to memory, cognition, practice, persistence, and muscle response that all improves through deliberate practice.▼
▲According to the American Psychological Association, the purpose of deliberate practice is to achieve high levels of expert performance.<ref>{{
== Characteristics of Deliberate Practice ==▼
Practice changes the human body physically and psychologically as it increases in skill level. Skills that are learned through deliberate practice are specific and time spent practicing is crucial for the individual. If an individual spent a short amount of time with high intensity during practice, they are not as likely to succeed as an individual with a long-term commitment to the practice and skill.
According to Ericsson, a practice session needs to follow these criteria in order to be considered "deliberate":
# The task should be well defined, with a clear goal, and should be completely understood by the student.
# The student should be able to do the task by himself.
# The student should be able to access immediate feedback about his performance, so they can make the changes needed to improve.
# The student should be able to replicate the tasks or similar tasks repeatedly.
# The task must be designed by a teacher and must be performed following a clear instruction by the teacher.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ericsson |first=K. Anders |date=2021-04-01 |title=Given that the detailed original criteria for deliberate practice have not changed, could the understanding of this complex concept have improved over time? A response to Macnamara and Hambrick (2020) |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-020-01368-3 |journal=Psychological Research |language=en |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=1114–1120 |doi=10.1007/s00426-020-01368-3 |issn=1430-2772 |pmc=8049893 |pmid=32583127}}</ref>
If the practice session follows all the criteria except for the last one, then, according to Ericsson, should be called "purposeful practice".
== Rebuttal to the 10,000 hour rule ==
Malcolm Gladwell developed the highly popular 10,000 hour rule. This rule states that if an individual spends 10,000 hours of full concentration and intense effort in their certain skill, they will become an expert at it. However, Anders Ericsson's article focuses on how the amount of time does not affect the elite status but how deliberate the practice is. Ericsson states "it is now quite clear that the number of hours of merely engaging in activities, such as playing music, chess and soccer, or engaging in professional work activities has a much lower benefit for improving performance than deliberate practice"
==Behavioral versus cognitive theories of deliberate practice==
Behavioral theory would argue that deliberate practice is facilitated by feedback from an expert that allows for successful approximation of the target performance. Feedback from an expert allows the learner to
In cognitive theory, excellent performance results from
==Motivation==
Learning is closely linked to practice and [[motivation]]. [[Cultural-historical psychology|Sociocultural theory]] applied to motivation of practice suggests that motivation resides not within the individual, but within the ___domain of social and cultural contexts united by shared action and activity. Thus, motivation to practice is not simply within the locus of the individual (see [[Motivation#Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation|Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation]]), but rather the locus is the activity and its specific contexts of which the individual is a participant.<ref>{{cite book |
Psychologist [[K. Anders Ericsson]] writes about motivation to practice. He creates a theoretical framework for acquisition of expert performance that discusses the issue of a lack of motivation to practice. He writes:<blockquote>Engagement in deliberate practice is not inherently motivating. Performers consider it instrumental in achieving further improvements in performance (the motivational constraint). The lack of inherent reward or enjoyment in practice as distinct from the enjoyment of the result (improvement) is consistent with the fact that individuals in a ___domain rarely initiate practice spontaneously.<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>The motivational constraint, mentioned above, is important to consider as it is an important premise of Ericsson's theoretical framework for deliberate practice. He finds that because participating in deliberate practice is not motivating that individuals must be engaged and motivated to take part in improvement before deliberate practice can even take place.<ref name=":0" /> He talks about the success of children who were simply exposed to an activity for months by their parents in a fun way. These children displayed immense interest in continuing the activity, so the parents then began implanting deliberate practice. This came to be extremely successful, which Ericsson cites as proof that his theory works when put into action. He finds that children must have the passion to improve their skills before deliberate practice begins in order to really be successful.<ref name=":0" />
==Deliberate practice in medical education==
Deliberate practice is used in medical education.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McGaghie |first=William C. |date=2017-04-11 |chapter=Advances in Medical Education from Mastery Learning and Deliberate Practice |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119165590.ch12 |journal=The Cycle of Excellence |pages=249–264 |doi=10.1002/9781119165590.ch12|isbn=978-1-119-16556-9 |chapter-url-access=subscription }}</ref> Duvivier et al. reconstructed the concept of deliberate practice into practical principles to describe the process as it relates to clinical skill acquisition. They defined deliberate practice as:
#repetitive performance of intended cognitive or psychomotor skills.
#rigorous skills assessment
#specific information feedback
#better skills performance
They further described the personal skills learners need to exhibit at various stages of skill development in order to be successful in developing their clinical skills. This includes:
#planning (
#concentration/dedication (higher attention span)
#repetition/revision (strong tendency to
#study style/self reflection (tendency to self-regulate learning)
While the study only included medical students, the authors found that repetitious practice may only help the novice learner (year 1) because as expertise is developed, the learner must focus and plan their learning around specific deficiencies. Curriculum must be designed to develop students' ability to plan their learning as they progress in their careers.
Finally, the findings in the study also have implications for developing self-regulated
In an article by Susan Howick, the idea of using mixed method practice in the medical field could be proven to be beneficial for practitioners and researchers.<ref>{{
==
Deliberate practice is used in mental health education. More than 20 peer-reviewed empirical [https://sentio.org/dpresearch studies] and two literature reviews have investigated the process and outcomes of deliberate practice in supervision.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nurse |first1=Karina |last2=O’Shea |first2=Melissa |last3=Ling |first3=Mathew |last4=Castle |first4=Nathan |last5=Sheen |first5=Jade |date=2025-04-03 |title=The influence of deliberate practice on skill performance in therapeutic practice: A systematic review of early studies |journal=Psychotherapy Research |language=en |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=353–367 |doi=10.1080/10503307.2024.2308159 |issn=1050-3307|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mahon |first=Daryl |date=2023 |title=A scoping review of deliberate practice in the acquisition of therapeutic skills and practices |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/capr.12601 |journal=Counselling and Psychotherapy Research |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=965–981 |doi=10.1002/capr.12601 |issn=1473-3145|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A 2024 review outlined two principal models of deliberate practice training for mental health professionals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clements-Hickman |first1=Alyssa L. |last2=Harris |first2=Kevin R. |date=2024 |title=Deliberate practice for psychotherapy skills: Recommendations and implications based on the state of the science. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pro0000592 |journal=Professional Psychology: Research and Practice |language=en |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=563–572 |doi=10.1037/pro0000592 |issn=1939-1323|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Better Results model, developed by Scott Miller, Mark Hubble, and Daryl Chow, leverages data from [[Feedback Informed Treatment]] to steer deliberate practice efforts.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Scott D. |url=https://content.apa.org/books/16160-000 |title=Better results: Using deliberate practice to improve therapeutic effectiveness. |last2=Hubble |first2=Mark A. |last3=Chow |first3=Daryl |date=2020 |publisher=American Psychological Association |isbn=978-1-4338-3190-4 |___location=Washington |language=en |doi=10.1037/0000191-000}}</ref> The [https://sentio.org/innovation Sentio Supervision Model], created by the Sentio University Marriage and Family Therapy program in California, combines psychotherapy skill rehearsal with clinical videos and outcome data.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vaz |first=Alexandre |date=2024 |title=Time to Rethink Psychotherapy Training and Supervision: Deliberate Practice as a Missing Ingredient in our Field |url=https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.sepiweb.org/resource/resmgr/integrative_therapist/integrative_therapist-v10-1.pdf |journal=The Integrative Therapist |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=17–24}}</ref>
Deliberate Practice is not just any form of preparatory activity, but is defined as as "highly structured activities that (a) are most relevant for improving performance, (b) are cognitively effortful, and (c) have no immediate rewards."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bartulovic|first1=Dora|last2=Young|first2=Bradley W.|last3=McCardle|first3=Lindsay|last4=Baker|first4=Joseph|date=2018-10-18|title=Can athletes' reports of self-regulated learning distinguish deliberate practice from physical preparation activity?|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2018.1455493|journal=Journal of Sports Sciences|volume=36|issue=20|pages=2340–2348|doi=10.1080/02640414.2018.1455493|issn=0264-0414|pmid=29569522|s2cid=4224464}}</ref> There is a rise in discovering the differences within the details and connection between deliberate practice and physical preparation. Some researchers propose the idea that self regulated learning can help athletes overcome practice constraints. With this, athletes are more inclined to achieve and develop as an athlete. Ericsson wants to pursue a more detail oriented approach on how deliberate practice is measured and how it is different from other types of training.▼
== Deliberate practice versus physical preparation ==
==As maintenance==▼
▲Deliberate
Skills fade with non-use.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wranx.com/what-is-skill-fade-and-how-to-combat-it/|title=SKILL FADE}}</ref> The phenomenon is often referred to as being "out of practice". Practice is therefore performed (on a regular basis) to keep skills and abilities honed. It is important to keep learners from reaching a burn out or exhaustion stage while learning and practicing. Spending a fair amount of time at practice is important when learning a new skill but taking time for mental and emotional health is just as important.▼
▲==As maintenance==
▲Skills fade with non-use.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wranx.com/what-is-skill-fade-and-how-to-combat-it/|title=SKILL FADE|date=14 October 2014 }}</ref> The phenomenon is often referred to as being "out of practice". Practice is therefore performed (on a regular basis) to keep skills and abilities honed. It is important to keep learners from reaching a burn out or exhaustion stage while learning and practicing. Spending a fair amount of time at practice is important when learning a new skill but taking time for mental and emotional health is just as important.
==See also==
{{div col}}
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==References==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=Movahedi |first1=Ahmadreza |last2=Sheikh |first2=Mahmood |last3=Bagherzadeh |first3=Fazlolah |last4=Hemayattalab |first4=Rasool |last5=Ashayeri |first5=Hassan |title=A Practice-Specificity-Based Model of Arousal for Achieving Peak Performance |journal=Journal of Motor Behavior |date=November 2007 |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=457–462 |doi=10.3200/JMBR.39.6.457-462 |pmid=18055352 |s2cid=6056979 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Macnamara |first1=Brooke N. |last2=Maitra |first2=Megha |title=The role of deliberate practice in expert performance: revisiting Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Römer (1993) |journal=Royal Society Open Science |date=August 2019 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=190327 |doi=10.1098/rsos.190327 |pmid=31598236 |pmc=6731745 |bibcode=2019RSOS....690327M }}
{{Sport}}
[[Category:Learning methods]]
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