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{{Other uses|Function (disambiguation){{!}}Function}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{anchor|SUBROUTINE_DEFINITION}}
In [[computer programming]], a '''function'''
|title=Terminology Glossary
|url=https://pages.nist.gov/ElectionGlossary/
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|publisher=NIST
|quote=Callable unit: (Of a software program or logical design) Function, method, operation, subroutine, procedure, or analogous structural unit that appears within a module.
|access-date=9 February 2024}}</ref> of [[software logic]] that has a well-defined [[Interface (computing)|interface]] and [[behavior]] and can be invoked
Callable units provide a powerful programming tool.<ref name="knuth1">{{cite book |title= The Art of Computer Programming, Volume I: Fundamental Algorithms |author= Donald E. Knuth |year= 1997 |author-link= Donald Knuth |publisher= Addison-Wesley |isbn=0-201-89683-4}}</ref> The primary purpose is to allow for the decomposition of a large and/or complicated problem into chunks that have relatively low [[cognitive load]] and to assign the chunks meaningful names (unless they are anonymous). Judicious application can reduce the cost of developing and maintaining software, while increasing its quality and reliability.<ref name="structprog">{{cite book |author= O.-J. Dahl |author2=E. W. Dijkstra |author3=C. A. R. Hoare |title= Structured Programming |publisher= Academic Press |year= 1972 |isbn= 0-12-200550-3}}</ref>
Callable units are present at multiple levels of [[abstraction]] in the programming environment. For example, a [[programmer]] may write a function in [[source code]] that is compiled to [[machine code]] that implements similar [[semantics]]. There is a callable unit in the source code and an associated one in the machine code, but they are different kinds of callable units {{endash}} with different implications and features.
==Terminology==
Some [[programming language]]s, such as [[COBOL]] and [[BASIC]], make a distinction between functions that return a value (typically called "functions") and those that do not (typically called "subprogram", "subroutine", or "procedure"); some, such as [[C (programming language)|C]], [[C++]], and [[Rust (programming language)|Rust]], only use the term "function" irrespective of whether they return a value or not; others, such as [[ALGOL 60]] and [[PL/I]], only use the word ''procedure''. Some [[Object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] languages, such as [[Java (programming language)|Java]] and [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]], refer to functions inside [[Class (computer programming)|classes]] as "[[Method (computer programming)|method]]s".
==History==
The idea of a callable unit was initially conceived by [[John Mauchly]] and [[Kathleen Antonelli]] during their work on [[ENIAC]] and recorded in a January 1947 Harvard symposium on "Preparation of Problems for [[EDVAC]]-type Machines
The idea of a subroutine was worked out after computing machines had already existed for some time. The arithmetic and conditional jump instructions were planned ahead of time and have changed relatively little, but the special instructions used for procedure calls have changed greatly over the years. The earliest computers
Subroutines were implemented in [[Konrad Zuse]]'s [[Z4 (computer)|Z4]] in 1945.
In 1945, [[Alan
In January 1947 John Mauchly presented general notes at 'A Symposium of Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery'
under the joint sponsorship of Harvard University and the Bureau of Ordnance, United States Navy. Here he discusses serial and parallel operation suggesting
{{
[[Kathleen Antonelli|Kay McNulty]] had worked closely with John Mauchly on the [[ENIAC]] team and developed an idea for subroutines for the [[ENIAC]] computer she was programming during World War II.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://fortune.com/2014/09/18/walter-isaacson-the-women-of-eniac/|title=Walter Isaacson on the Women of ENIAC|last=Isaacson|first=Walter|date=18 September 2014|website=Fortune|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212003245/http://fortune.com/2014/09/18/walter-isaacson-the-women-of-eniac/|archive-date=12 December 2018|access-date=2018-12-14}}</ref> She and the other ENIAC programmers used the subroutines to help calculate missile trajectories.<ref name=":0" />
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| access-date = February 8, 2024
}}
</ref> (1961) is one of the first computers to store subroutine return data on a stack.
The DEC [[PDP-6]]<ref>{{cite book
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====Delayed stacking {{anchor|Leaf procedure}}{{anchor|Leaf function}}====
One disadvantage of the call stack mechanism is the increased cost of a procedure call and its matching return.{{ clarify | date = November 2015 | reason = increased relative to what?}} The extra cost includes incrementing and decrementing the stack pointer (and, in some architectures, checking for [[stack overflow]]), and accessing the local variables and parameters by frame-relative addresses, instead of absolute addresses. The cost may be realized in increased execution time, or increased processor complexity, or both.
This overhead is most obvious and objectionable in ''leaf procedures'' or ''[[leaf
<!---If the procedure or function itself uses stack handling commands, outside of the prologue and epilogue, e.g. to store intermediate calculation values, the programmer needs to keep track of the number of 'push' and 'pop' instructions so as not to corrupt the original return address.-->
<!--Major cleanup needed from this point on-->
== Features ==
{{uncited section|date=August 2025}}
In general, a callable unit is a list of instructions that, starting at the first instruction, executes sequentially except as directed via its internal logic. It can be invoked (called) many times during the [[Execution (computing)|execution]] of a program. Execution continues at the next instruction after the call instruction when it [[Return statement|returns]] control.
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The features of [[implementation]]s of callable units evolved over time and varies by context.
This section describes features of the various common implementations.
=== General characteristics ===
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* Specify a return value in the function body
* Call a function
* Provide [[actual parameters]] that correspond to a called function's
* [[return statement|Return]] control to the caller at the point of call
* Consume the return value in the caller
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* Provide a private [[scope (computer science)|naming scope]] for variables
* Identify variables outside the function that are accessible within it
* Propagate
* Package functions into a container such as [[modular programming|module]], [[library (computing)|library]], [[object (computer science)|object]], or [[class (computer programming)|class]]
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=== Call syntax ===
If declared to return a value, a call can be embedded in an [[expression (programming)|expression]] in order to consume the return value. For example, a square root callable unit might be called like <code>y = sqrt(x)</code>.
A callable unit that does not return a value is called as a stand-alone [[statement (computer science)|statement]] like <code>print("hello")</code>. This syntax can also be used for a callable unit that returns a value, but the return value will be ignored.
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! Convention !! Description !! Used in
|-
| [[Call by value|by value]] || A copy of the
|-
| [[Call by reference|by reference]] || A reference to the argument is passed; typically its address || Selectable in most Algol-like languages after [[Algol 60]], such as Algol 68, Pascal, Delphi, Simula, CPL, PL/M, Modula, Oberon, Ada, and many others including C++, Fortran, PL/I
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In some languages, such as BASIC, a callable has different syntax (i.e. keyword) for a callable that returns a value vs. one that does not.
In other languages, the syntax is the same regardless.
In some of these languages an extra keyword is used to declare no return value; for
In some languages, such as Python, the difference is whether the body contains a return statement with a value, and a particular callable may return with or without a value based on control flow.
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In many contexts, a callable may have [[side-effect (computer science)|side effect]] behavior such as modifying passed or global data, reading from or writing to a [[peripheral device]], accessing a [[computer file|file]], halting the program or the machine, or temporarily pausing program execution.
Side effects are considered undesirable by [[Robert C. Martin]], who is known for promoting design principles. Martin argues that side effects can result in [[sequential coupling|temporal coupling]] or order dependencies.<ref name="clean code">{{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Robert C. |title=Clean Code: A Handbook of Agile Software Craftsmanship |date=Aug 1, 2008 |publisher=[[Pearson PLC|Pearson]] |isbn=9780132350884 |edition=1 |url=https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/clean-code-a/9780136083238/ |access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
In strictly [[functional programming]] languages such as [[Haskell (programming language)|Haskell]], a function can have no [[Side effect (computer science)|side effects]], which means it cannot change the state of the program. Functions always return the same result for the same input. Such languages typically only support functions that return a value, since there is no value in a function that has neither return value nor side effect.
{{Anchor|LVRR}} <!--what is this?-->
=== Local variables ===
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=== Nested call {{endash}} recursion ===
If supported by the language, a callable may call itself, causing its execution to suspend while another ''nested'' execution of the same callable executes. [[Recursion (computer science)|Recursion]] is a useful means to simplify some complex algorithms and break down complex problems. Recursive languages provide a new copy of local variables on each call. If the programmer desires the recursive callable to use the same variables instead of using locals, they typically declare them in a shared context such static or global.
Languages going back to [[ALGOL]], [[PL/I]] and [[C (programming language)|C]] and modern languages, almost invariably use a call stack, usually supported by the instruction sets to provide an activation record for each call. That way, a nested call can modify its local variables without
Recursion allows direct implementation of functionality defined by [[mathematical induction]] and recursive [[divide and conquer algorithm]]s. Here is an example of a recursive function in C/C++ to find [[Fibonacci
<syntaxhighlight lang="c">
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{{main|Nested function}}
Some languages,
A simple example in Pascal:<syntaxhighlight lang="pascal">function E(x: real): real;
function F(y: real): real;
begin
F := x + y
end;
begin
E := F(3) + F(4)
end;</syntaxhighlight>The function <code>F</code> is nested within <code>E</code>. Note that <code>E</code>'s parameter <code>x</code> is also visible in <code>F</code> (as <code>F</code> is a part of <code>E</code>) while both <code>x</code> and <code>y</code> are invisible outside <code>E</code> and <code>F</code> respectively.
=== Reentrancy ===
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==== Compiler optimization ====
Some optimizations for minimizing call overhead may seem straight forward, but cannot be used if the callable has side effects. For example, in the expression <code>(f(x)-1)/(f(x)+1)</code>, the function <code>f</code> cannot be called only once with its value used two times since the two calls may return different results. Moreover, in the few languages which define the order of evaluation of the division operator's operands, the value of <code>x</code> must be fetched again before the second call, since the first call may have changed it. Determining whether a callable has a side effect is difficult {{endash}} indeed, [[undecidable problem|undecidable]] by virtue of [[Rice's theorem]]. So, while this optimization is safe in a purely functional programming language, a compiler for
==== Inlining ====
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{{Anchor|Built-in function}}
{{main|Intrinsic function}}
A ''built-in function'', or ''builtin function'', or ''intrinsic function'', is a function for which the compiler generates code at [[compile time]] or provides in a way other than for other functions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Built-in functions |url=https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/zos/2.2.0?topic=lf-built-in-functions |website=ibm.com | date=9 March 2017 |access-date=December 25, 2023}}</ref> A built-in function does not need to be defined like other functions since it is ''built in'' to the programming language.<ref>{{cite book |title=Study Material Python |date=April 2023 |page=87 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d0nhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA87 |access-date=December 25, 2023}}</ref>
== Programming ==
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* [[Decomposition (computer science)|Decomposing]] a complex programming task into simpler steps: this is one of the two main tools of [[structured programming]], along with [[data structure]]s
* Reducing [[duplicate code]] within a program
* Enabling [[Code reuse|reuse of code]] across multiple programs
* Dividing a large programming task among various programmers or various stages of a project
* [[Information hiding|Hiding implementation details]] from users of the function
* Improving readability of code by replacing a block of code with a function call where a [https://books.google.com/books?id=_i6bDeoCQzsC&pg=PA39&dq=descriptive+function+name descriptive] function name serves to describe the block of code. This makes the calling code concise and readable even if the function is not meant to be reused.
* Improving [[Traceability#Software|traceability]] (i.e. most languages offer ways to obtain the call trace which includes the names of the involved functions and perhaps even more information such as file names and line numbers); by not decomposing the code into functions, debugging would be severely impaired
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=== Conventions ===
Many programming conventions have been developed regarding callables.
With respect to naming, many developers name a callable with a phrase starting with a [[verb]] when it does a certain task, with an [[adjective]] when it makes an inquiry, and with a [[noun]] when it is used to substitute variables.
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Some programmers suggest that a callable should perform exactly one task, and if it performs more than one task, it should be split up into multiple callables. They argue that callables are key components in [[software maintenance]], and their roles in the program must remain distinct.
Proponents of [[modular programming]] advocate that each callable should have minimal dependency on the rest of the [[codebase]]. For example, the use of [[global variable]]s is generally deemed unwise, because it adds coupling between all callables that use the global variables. If such coupling is not necessary, they advise to [[code refactoring|refactor]] callables to accept passed [[parameter (computer programming)|parameters]] instead.
== Examples ==
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===Small Basic===
In [[Microsoft Small Basic]], targeted to the student first
The <code>Sub</code> keyword denotes the start of a subroutine and is followed by a name identifier. Subsequent lines are the body which ends with the <code>EndSub</code> keyword.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Small Basic |url=https://smallbasic-publicwebsite.azurewebsites.net/ |website=Small Basic |access-date=8 February 2024}}</ref>
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This can be called as <code>SayHello()</code>.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Small Basic Getting Started Guide: Chapter 9: Subroutines |date=17 January 2024 |url=https://social.technet.microsoft.com/wiki/contents/articles/16077.small-basic-getting-started-guide-chapter-9-subroutines.aspx |publisher=Microsoft }}</ref>
===Visual Basic===
In later versions of [[Visual Basic]] (VB), including the [[Visual Basic (.NET)|latest product line]] and [[Visual Basic (classic)|VB6]], the term ''procedure'' is used for the callable unit concept. The keyword <code>Sub</code> is used to return no value and <code>Function</code> to return a value. When used in the context of a class, a procedure is a method.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Procedures in Visual Basic |url=https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/visual-basic/programming-guide/language-features/procedures/ |website=Microsoft Learn |date=15 September 2021 |access-date=8 February 2024}}</ref>
Each parameter has a [[data type]] that can be specified, but if not, defaults to <code>Object</code> for later versions based on [[.NET]] and [[variant type|variant]] for [[Visual Basic 6|VB6]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Dim statement (Visual Basic) |url=https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/visual-basic/language-reference/statements/dim-statement |website=Microsoft Learn |date=15 September 2021 |access-date=8 February 2024}}</ref>
VB supports parameter passing conventions [[call by value|by value]] and [[call by reference|by reference]] via the keywords <code>ByVal</code> and <code>ByRef</code>, respectively.
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* [[Functional programming]]
* [[Fused operation]]
* [[Intrinsic function]]
* [[Lambda function (computer programming)]], a function that is not bound to an identifier
* [[Logic programming]]
▲* [[Method (computer programming)]]
* [[Modular programming]]
* [[Operator overloading]]
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