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There are challenges and implications surrounding digitization including time, cost, cultural history concerns, and creating an equitable platform for historically marginalized voices.<ref name=":822">{{Cite journal |last=Hughes-Watkins |first=Lae'l |date=2018-05-16 |title=Moving Toward a Reparative Archive: A Roadmap for a Holistic Approach to Disrupting Homogenous Histories in Academic Repositories and Creating Inclusive Spaces for Marginalized Voices |url=https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/jcas/vol5/iss1/6 |journal=Journal of Contemporary Archival Studies |volume=5 |issue=1 |issn=2380-8845}}</ref> Many digitizing institutions develop their own solutions to these challenges.<ref name=":04"/>
Mass digitization projects have had mixed results over the years, but some institutions have had success even if not in the traditional Google Books model.<ref name=":922">Verheusen, A. (2008). Mass digitization by libraries: Issues concerning organisation, quality and efficiency. ''LIBER Quarterly'', 18(1), 28-38.</ref> Although e-books have undermined the sales of their printed counterparts, a study from 2017 indicated that the two cater to different audiences and use-cases.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Yoo |first1=Dong Kyoon |last2=Roh |first2=James Jungbae |date=2019-03-04 |title=Adoption of e-Books: A Digital Textbook Perspective |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08874417.2017.1318688 |journal=Journal of Computer Information Systems |language=en |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=136–145 |doi=10.1080/08874417.2017.1318688 |issn=0887-4417|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In a study of over 1400 university students it was found that physical literature is more apt for intense studies while e-books provide a superior experience for leisurely reading.<ref name=":1" />
Technological changes can happen often and quickly, so digitization standards are difficult to keep updated. Professionals in the field can attend conferences and join organizations and working groups to keep their knowledge current and add to the conversation.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |title=Session 7: Reformatting and Digitization |url=https://www.nedcc.org/preservation101/session-7/7digitization |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Northeast Document Conservation Center |language=en}}</ref>
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"Digitization" is also used to describe the process of populating [[database]]s with files or data. While this usage is technically inaccurate, it originates with the previously proper use of the term to describe that part of the process involving digitization of analog sources, such as printed pictures and brochures, before uploading to target databases.<ref name="abc"/>
Digitizing may also be used in the field of apparel, where an image may be recreated with the help of [[Machine embroidery#Computerized machine embroidery|embroidery digitizing]] software tools and saved as [[Machine embroidery#
== History ==
* 1957 The Standards Electronic Automatic Computer (SEAC) was invented.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=What is the History of Digitization? |url=https://kodakdigitizing.com/blogs/news/what-is-the-history-of-digitization |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Kodak Digitizing}}</ref> That same year, [[Russell Kirsch]] used a rotating drum scanner and photomultiplier connected to SEAC to create the first digital image (176x176 pixels) from a photo of his infant son.<ref>{{Cite
* 1971 Invention of Charge-Coupled Devices that made conversion from analog data to a digital format easy.<ref name=":6" />
* 1986 work started on the [[JPEG]] format.<ref name=":6" />
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Analog signals are continuous electrical signals; digital signals are non-continuous. Analog signals can be converted to digital signals by using an [[analog-to-digital converter]].<ref>ICT Technologies. (2004, February 3). ''Analog vs. digital signals''. Chapter 3: Module 2: Communication Systems. Archived from the original on March 3, 2008. Retrieved on December 15, 2021, from https://tsapps.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=821701</ref>
The process of converting analog to digital consists of two parts: sampling and quantizing. Sampling measures wave amplitudes at regular intervals, splits them along the vertical axis, and assigns them a numerical value, while quantizing looks for measurements that are between binary values and rounds them up or down.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How do we convert audio from analogue to digital and back? |url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/how-do-we-convert-audio-from-analogue-to-digital-and-back/ |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=BBC Science Focus Magazine |date=11 October 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
Nearly all recorded music has been digitized, and about 12 percent of the 500,000+ movies listed on the [[Internet Movie Database]] are digitized and were released on [[DVD]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.6028/jres.107.010 | title=The state of the art and practice in digital preservation | year=2002 | last1=Lee | first1=K.H. | last2=Slattery | first2=O. | last3=Lu | first3=R. | last4=Tang | first4=X. | last5=McCrary | first5=V. | journal=Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology | volume=107 | issue=1 | pages=93–106 | pmid=27446721 | pmc=4865277 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1257/jep.31.3.195 | title=How Digitization Has Created a Golden Age of Music, Movies, Books, and Television | year=2017 | last1=Waldfogel | first1=Joel | journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives | volume=31 | issue=3 | pages=195–214 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
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Another example of digitization is the [[VisualAudio]] process developed by the Swiss ''Fonoteca Nazionale'' in [[Lugano]], by scanning a high resolution photograph of a record, they are able to extract and reconstruct the sound from the processed image.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Swiss National Sound Archives |url=https://www.fonoteca.ch/index_en.htm |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=www.fonoteca.ch}}</ref>
Digitization of analog tapes before they degrade, or after damage has already occurred, can rescue the only copies of local and traditional cultural music for future generations to study and enjoy.<ref name=":114">{{Cite journal |last=Breeding |first=Marshall |date=2014-11-01 |title=Ongoing Challenges in Digitization |url=https://librarytechnology.org/document/20128 |journal=Computers in Libraries |language=en |volume=34 |issue=
==Analog texts to digital==
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*Attachment of descriptive, structural, and technical [[metadata]] to all digitized documents.
A list of archival standards for digital preservation can be found on the [[Association of Research Libraries|ARL]] website.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arl.org/bm~doc/digi_preserv.pdf|title=Search Publications – Association of Research Libraries® – ARL®|website=www.arl.org|access-date=2016-11-06|archive-date=2012-05-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505032857/http://www.arl.org/bm~doc/digi_preserv.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The Library of Congress has constituted a Preservation Digital Reformatting Program.<ref>Library of Congress, (2006). Preservation Digital Reformatting Program.
*Selection Criteria for digital reformatting
*Digital reformatting principles and specifications
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== Challenges ==
Many libraries, archives, museums, and other memory institutions, struggle with catching up and staying current regarding digitization and the expectation that everything should already be online.<ref name=":142">Greene, M. A. (2010). MPLP: It's not just for processing anymore. ''The American Archivist, 73''(1), 175-203.</ref><ref name=":152">{{cite journal | doi=10.1108/DLP-06-2017-0020 | title=Ramping up | year=2018 | last1=Lampert | first1=Cory | journal=Digital Library Perspectives | volume=34 | issue=1 | pages=45–59 }}</ref> The time spent planning, doing the work, and processing the digital files along with the expense and fragility of some materials are some of the most common.
=== Time spent ===
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=== Expense ===
Cost of equipment, staff time, metadata creation, and digital storage media make large scale digitization of collections expensive for all types of [[cultural institution]]s.<ref name=":162">{{cite journal | doi=10.5860/rbm.13.1.369 | title=Balancing Boutique-Level Quality and Large-Scale Production: The Impact of "More Product, Less Process" on Digitization in Archives and Special Collections | year=2012 | last1=Sutton | first1=Shan C. | journal=RBM: A Journal of Rare Books, Manuscripts, and Cultural Heritage | volume=13 | issue=1 | pages=50–63 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
Ideally, all institutions want their digital copies to have the best image quality so a high-quality copy can be maintained over time.<ref name=":162"/> In the mid-long term, digital storage would be regarded as the more expensive part to maintain the digital archives due to the increasing number of scanning requests.<ref name="Duran Casablancas">{{Cite journal |last1=Duran Casablancas |first1=Cristina |last2=Holtman |first2=Marc |last3=Strlič |first3=Matija |last4=Grau-Bové |first4=Josep |date=2022-10-12 |title=The end of the reading room? Simulating the impact of digitisation on the physical access of archival collections
=== Fragility of materials ===
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=== Non-traditional staffing ===
Many institutions have the option of using volunteers, student employees, or temporary employees on projects. While this saves on staffing costs, it can add costs elsewhere such as on training or having to re-scan items due to poor quality.<ref name=":152" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1108/DLP-07-2017-0024 | title=Staffing with students | year=2018 | last1=Skulan | first1=Naomi | journal=Digital Library Perspectives | volume=34 | issue=1 | pages=32–44 | url=https://digitalcommons.morris.umn.edu/library/7 }}</ref>
=== MPLP ===
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=== Gi-gikinomaage-min ===
Gi-gikinomaage-min is [[Ojibwe language|Anishinaabemowin]] for "We are all teachers" and its main purpose is "to document the history of Native Americans in Grand Rapids, Michigan."<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/01462679.2017.1344597 | title=We Are All Teachers: A Collaborative Approach to Digital Collection Development | year=2017 | last1=Shell-Weiss | first1=Melanie | last2=Benefiel | first2=Annie | last3=McKee | first3=Kimberly | journal=Collection Management | volume=42 | issue=3–4 | pages=317–337 | s2cid=196044884 | doi-access=free }}</ref> It combines new audio and video oral histories with digitized flyers, posters, and newsletters from [[Grand Valley State University]]'s analog collections.<ref name=":3" /> Although not entirely a newly digitized project, what was created also added item-level metadata to enhance context. At the start, collaboration between several university departments and the Native American population was deemed important and remained strong throughout the project.<ref name=":3" />
=== SAADA ===
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=== Obstacles ===
Digitization can be a physically slow process involving selection and preparation of collections that can take years if materials need to be compared for completeness or are vulnerable to damage.<ref name=":9">Verheusen, A. (2008). Mass digitization by libraries: Issues concerning organisation, quality and Efficiency. ''LIBER Quarterly'', 18(1), 28-38.</ref> Price of specialized equipment, storage costs, website maintenance, quality control, and retrieval system limitations all add to the problems of working on a large scale.<ref name=":9" />
=== Data privacy and security ===
Digitization presents significant challenges related to data privacy and security.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muktiarni |first1=M |last2=Widiaty |first2=I |last3=Abdullah |first3=A G |last4=Ana |first4=A |last5=Yulia |first5=C |date=2019-12-01 |title=Digitalisation trend in education during industry 4.0 |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |volume=1402 |issue=7 |pages=077070 |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/1402/7/077070 |issn=1742-6588|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019JPhCS1402g7070M }}</ref> As organizations increasingly depend on electronic databases and information systems, their vulnerability to security threats also rises.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Duggineni |first=Sasidhar |date=2023-06-02 |title=Impact of Controls on Data Integrity and Information Systems |url=http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.scit.20231302.04.html |journal=Science and Technology |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=29–35}}</ref> The risk of data loss rises and cyberattacks can result in significant financial losses and damage the company’s reputation .<ref name=":5" /> Therefore, there is a need for better cybersecurity measures and protection of data security and privacy to decrease the risks associated with digitization.<ref name=":5" />
=== Successes ===
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*Anderson, Cokie G.; Maxwell, David C, ''Starting a Digitization Center'', Chandos Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|978-1843340737}}
*Bulow, Anna; Ahmon, Jess, ''Preparing Collections for Digitization'', Facet Publishing, 2010, {{ISBN|978-1856047111}}
*Perrin, Joy,
*Piepenburg, Scott, "Digitizing Audiovisual and Nonprint Materials: the Innovative Librarian's Guide", Libraries Unlimited, 2015, {{ISBN|978-1440837807}}
*Robinson, Peter, ''Digitization of Primary Textual Sources'', Office for Humanities Communication, 1993, {{ISBN|978-1897791059}}
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