Models of communication: Difference between revisions

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[[File:Common components of models of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Diagram showing the most common components of models of communication|Many models of communication include the idea that a [[Sending|sender]] encodes a message and uses a channel to transmit it to a receiver. Noise may distort the message along the way. The receiver then decodes the message and gives some form of feedback.{{sfn|Fujishin|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sFrheqNL-ukC&pg=PA8 8]}}]]

'''Models of communication''' aresimplify simplifiedor representations ofrepresent the process of [[communication]]. Most modelscommunication [[model]]s try to describe both [[Verbal communication|verbal]] and [[non-verbal communication]] and often understand it as an exchange of [[message]]s. Their function is to give a compact overview of the complex process of communication. This helps researchers formulate [[Hypothesis|hypotheses]], apply communication-related concepts to real-world cases, and test [[prediction]]s. Despite their usefulness, many models are criticized based on the claim that they are too simple because they leave out essential aspects. The components and their interactions are usually presented in the form of a diagram. Some basic components and interactions reappear in many of the models. They include the idea that a sender [[Code|encodes]] information in the form of a message and sends it to a [[Receiver (information theory)|receiver]] through a [[Communication channel|channel]]. The receiver needs to decode the message to understand the initial idea and provides some form of [[feedback]]. In both cases, [[Communication noise|noise]] may interfere and distort the message.

Models of communication are classified depending on their intended applications and on how they conceptualize the process. General models apply to all forms of communication while specialized models restrict themselves to specific forms, like [[mass communication]]. Linear transmission models understand communication as a one-way process in which a sender transmits an idea to a receiver. Interaction models include a feedback loop through which the receiver responds after getting the message. Transaction models see sending and responding as simultaneous activities. They hold that [[Meaning (philosophy)|meaning]] is created in this process and does not exist prior to it. Constitutive and [[Social constructionism|constructionist]] models stress that communication is a basic phenomenon responsible for how people understand and [[experience]] [[reality]]. [[Interpersonal communication|Interpersonal]] models describe communicative exchanges with other people. They contrast with [[Intrapersonal communication|intrapersonal]] models, which discuss communication with oneself. Models of non-human communication describe communication among other species. Further types include encoding-decoding models, hypodermic models, and relational models.

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== Definition and function ==

Models of communication are representations of the process of [[communication]]. They try to provide a simple explanation of the process by highlighting its most basic characteristics and components. As simplified pictures, they only present the aspects that, according to the model's designer, are most central to communication.{{sfn|Ruben|2001|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/models-communication Models Of Communication]}}{{sfn|West|2010}} Communication can be defined as the transmission of ideas. General models of communication try to describe all of its forms, including [[Verbal communication|verbal]] and [[non-verbal communication]] as well as [[visual]], [[Hearing|auditory]], and [[olfactory]] forms.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 1–8]|loc=Introduction}} In the widest sense, communication is not restricted to humans but happens also [[Animal communication|among animals]] and between species. However, models of communication normally focus on [[human communication]] as the [[paradigm|paradigmatic form]].{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-1-communication-history-and-forms/ 1.1 Communication: History and Forms]}} They usually involve some type of interaction between two or more parties in which messages are exchanged.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 60]|loc=communication models}}{{sfn|Craig|1999}} The process as a whole is very complex, which is why models of communication only present the most salient features by showing how the main components operate and interact.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 10–12, 23–25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} They usually do so in the form of a simplified visualization and ignore some aspects for the sake of simplicity.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Cobley|Schulz|2013|p=[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110240450/html 7–10]|loc=Introduction}}

Some theorists, like Paul Cobley and Peter J. Schulz, distinguish models of communication from [[Communication theory|theories of communication]]. This is based on the idea that theories of communication try to provide a more abstract [[conceptual framework]] that is strong enough to accurately represent the underlying [[reality]] despite its complexity.{{sfn|Cobley|Schulz|2013|p=[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110240450/html 7–10]|loc=Introduction}} Communication theorist Robert Craig sees the difference in the fact that models primarily represent communication while theories additionally explain it.{{sfn|Craig|2013|pp=46–47}} According to Frank Dance, there is no one fully comprehensive model of communication since each one highlights only certain aspects and distorts others. For this reason, he suggests that a family of different models should be adopted.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 23]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}

Models of communication serve various functions. Their simplified presentation helps students and researchers identify the main steps of communication and apply communication-related concepts to real-world cases.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 10–12, 23–25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}} The unified picture they provide makes it easier to describe and explain the observed phenomena. Models of communication can guide the formulation of [[hypotheses]] and [[prediction]]s about how communicative processes will unfold and show how these processes can be measured.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 23–25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}} One of their goals is to show how to improve communication, for example, by avoiding distortions through [[noise]] or by discovering how [[Society|societal]] and [[Economy|economic]] factors affect the quality of communication.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 1–8]|loc=Introduction}}

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Many basic concepts reappear in the different models, like "sender", "[[Receiver (information theory)|receiver]]", "[[message]]", "[[Communication channel|channel]]", "[[signal]]", "[[encoding]]", "decoding", "[[Communication noise|noise]]", "[[feedback]]", and "[[Context (language use)|context]]". Their exact meanings vary slightly from model to model and sometimes different terms are used for the same ideas. Simple models only rely on a few of these concepts while more complex models include many of them.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 10–12, 23–25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}

The ''sender'' is responsible for creating the message and sending it to the ''receiver''. Some theorists use the terms ''source'' and ''destination'' instead. The ''message'' itself can be verbal or non-verbal and contains some form of [[information]].{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Steinberg|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g8GRgXYeo_kC&pg=PA91 91]}} The process of ''encoding'' translates the message into a signal that can be conveyed using a channel. The ''channel'' is the sensory route on which the signal travels. For example, expressing one's thoughts in a speech encodes them as [[sound]]s, which are transmitted using air as a channel. ''Decoding'' is the reverse process of encoding: it happens when the signal is translated back into a message.{{sfn|Sereno|Mortensen|1970|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vQwEAQAAIAAJ 122–3]|loc=Communication Theory: Decoding-Encoding}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 125]|loc=encoding}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 44]|loc=channel}} ''

Noise'' is any influence that interferes with the message reaching its destination. Some theorists distinguish between environmental noise and [[Semantics|semantic]] noise.: Environmentalenvironmental noise distorts the signal on its way to the receiver., Semanticwhereas semantic noise occurs during encoding or decoding, for example, when an ambiguous word in the message is not interpreted by the receiver as it was meant by the sender.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 296]|loc=noise}} ''Feedback'' means that the receiver responds to the message by conveying some information back to the original sender.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}} ''Context'' consists in the circumstances of the communication. It is a very wide term that can apply to the physical environment and the [[mental state]] of the communicators as well as the general social situation.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 72]|loc=context}}

== Classifications ==

Models of communication are classified in many ways and the proposed classifications often overlap. Some models are general in the sense that they aim to describe all forms of communication. Others are specialized: they only apply to specific fields or areas. For example, models of [[mass communication]] are specialized models that do not aim to give a universal account of communication.{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 24, 30]|loc=2. Other models}} Another contrast is between linear and non-linear models. Most early models of communication are linear models. They present communication as a unidirectional process in which messages flow from the communicator to the [[audience]]. Non-linear models, on the other hand, are multi-directional: messages are sent back and forth between participants. According to Uma Narula, linear models describe single acts of communication while non-linear models describe the whole process.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 12–14]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}}

=== Linear transmission model ===

[[File:Linearmodel.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Linear transmission model{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}]]

Linear transmission models describe communication as a one-way process. In it, a sender intentionally conveys a message to a receiver. The reception of the message is the endpoint of this process. Since there is no feedback loop, the sender may not know whether the message reached its intended destination. Most early models were transmission models. Due to their linear nature, they are often too simple to capture the dynamic aspects of various forms of communication, such as regular face-to-face conversation.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} By focusing only on the sender, they leave out the audience's perspective. For example, listening usually does not just happen, but is an active process involving [[Understanding|listening skills]] and interpretation.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 15–17]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} However, some forms of communication can be accurately described by them, such as many types of [[computer-mediated communication]]. This applies, for example, to [[text messaging]], sending an email, posting a blog, or sharing something on social media.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}}{{sfn|Manuela|Clara|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FjFtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} Some theorists, like Uma Narula, talk of "action models" instead of linear transmission models to stress how they only focus on the actions of the sender.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 15]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} Linear transmission models include Aristotle's, [[Lasswell's model of communication|Lasswell]]'s, [[Shannon–Weaver model|Shannon-Weaver]]'s and [[Source-Message-Channel-Receiver model of communication|Berlo]]'s model.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}}{{sfn|Cobley|Schulz|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6xrNrpSZKxsC&pg=PA41 41]}}{{sfn|Hakanen|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oFHgZaiNhWUC&pg=PA28 28]}}

=== Interaction model ===

[[File:Interaction_models_of_communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Interaction model{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}]]

For interaction models, the participants in communication alternate the positions of sender and receiver. So upon receiving a message, a new message is generated and returned to the original sender as a form of feedback. In this regard, communication is a two-way process. This adds more complexity to the model since the participants are both senders and receivers and they alternate between these two positions.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}}

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For interaction models, these steps happen one after the other: first, one message is sent and received, later another message is returned as feedback, etc. Such feedback loops make it possible for the sender to assess whether their message was received and had the intended effect or whether it was distorted by noise.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 15–19]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} For example, interaction models can be used to describe a conversation through [[instant messaging]]: the sender sends a message and then has to wait for the receiver to react. Another example is a question/answer session where one person asks a question and then waits for another person to answer. Interaction models usually put more emphasis on the interactive process and less on the technical problem of how the message is conveyed at each step. For this reason, more prominence is given to the context that shapes the exchange of messages. This includes the physical context, like the distance between the speakers, and the psychological context, which includes mental and emotional factors like stress and anxiety.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} [[Schramm's model]] is one of the earliest interaction models.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA176 176]}}

=== Transaction model ===

[[File:Transactionalmodel.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Transaction model{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}]]

Transaction models depart from interaction models in two ways. On the one hand, they understand sending and responding as simultaneous processes. This can be used to describe how listeners use non-verbal communication, like [[body posture]] and [[facial expression]]s, to give some form of feedback. This way, they can signal whether they agree with the message while the speaker is talking. This feedback may in turn influence the speaker's message while it is being produced. On the other hand, transactional models stress that meaning is created in the process of communication and does not exist prior to it. This is often combined with the claim that communication creates social realities like relationships, [[Identity (social science)|personal identities]], and [[communities]].{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}}{{sfn|Barnlund|2013|p=48}} This also affects the communicators themselves on various levels, such as their thoughts and feelings as well as their social identities.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 387]|loc=Shannon and Weaver's model}}

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''Constitutive models'' hold that meaning is "reflexively constructed, maintained, or negotiated in the act of communicating".{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 69]|loc=constitutive models}} This means that communication is not just the exchange of pre-established bundles of information but a creative process, unlike the outlook found in many transmission models.{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 2]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}} According to Robert Craig, this implies that communication is a basic social phenomenon that cannot be explained through psychological, cultural, economic, or other factors. Instead, communication is to be seen as the cause of other social processes and not as their result.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA177 176–7]}} Constitutive models are closely related to [[Social constructionism|constructionist]] models, which see communication as the basic process responsible for how people understand, represent, and experience reality. According to social constructionists, like [[George Herbert Mead]], reality is not something wholly external but depends on how it is [[concept]]ualized, which happens through communication.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 69]|loc=constructionism}} |2={{harvnb|Morel|Spector|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=112CEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT127 127]}} |3={{harvnb|Trenholm|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M2r0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT60 60]}} |4={{harvnb|Scott|Marshall|2009|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100515181;jsessionid=A1623E3458FCA323C4BDA9C013BE7253 social constructionism]}} |5={{harvnb|Lock|Strong|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nASJ5WEMsKMC&pg=PA122 122–123]}} }}</ref>

=== Interpersonal and intrapersonal Communication ===

[[File:Barker & wiseman - model of intrapersonal communication - text.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Intrapersonal communication#Models|Model of intrapersonal communication]] by Larry L. Barker and Gordon Wiseman. The left side of the diagram shows the start of the process: external and internal stimuli (red and violet arrows) are perceived. This triggers various cognitive processes (green areas) involved in the interpretation of the stimuli. These processes result in the generation and transmission of new stimuli, which are again perceived.{{sfn|Barker|Wiseman|1966|p=174}}]]

[[Interpersonal communication]] is communication between two distinct persons, like when greeting someone on the street or making a phone call.{{sfn|Barker|Wiseman|1966|p=173}}{{sfn|Lederman|2002|p=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/intrapersonal-communication 490–2]|loc=Intrapersonal communication}}{{sfn|Selnow|Crano|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=usrTIGmPucEC&pg=PA124 124]}} [[Intrapersonal communication]], in contrast, is communication with oneself.{{sfn|UMN staff|2010}}{{sfn|Danesi|2009|p=164}} An example is a person thinking to themself that they should bring in the laundry from outside because it is about to rain.{{sfn|Koutoukidis|Funnell|Lawrence|Hughson|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iyGLjn0Md0sC&pg=PA446 446]}} Most models of communication focus on interpersonal communication by assuming that sender and receiver are distinct persons. They often explore how the sender encodes a message, how this message is transmitted and possibly distorted, and how the receiver decodes and interprets the message.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Wood|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9d4JAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 15–7]}} |2={{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 60]|loc=communication models}} |3={{harvnb|Farley|1992|p=481–484}} |4={{harvnb|Barker|Wiseman|1966|p=172}} }}</ref>

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According to Aristotle's communication model, the speaker wishes to have an effect on the audience, such as [[Persuasion|persuading]] them of an opinion or a course of action. The same message may have very different effects depending on the audience and the occasion. For this reason, the speaker should take these factors into account and compose their message accordingly.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Eisenberg|Gamble|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8h_fmTfBU3oC&pg=PA25 25]}} Many of the basic elements of the Aristotelian model of communication are still found in contemporary models.{{sfn|Ruben|2001|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/models-communication Models Of Communication]}}

=== Harold D. LasswelLasswell ===

{{main|Lasswell's model of communication}}

[[File:Lasswell's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Visual presentation of Lasswell's model of communication as a linear transmission model.{{sfn|Steinberg|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g8GRgXYeo_kC&pg=PA52 52–3]}}{{sfn|Sapienza|Iyer|Veenstra|2015|p=599–622}}]]

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Lasswell's model is often criticized due to its simplicity. An example is that it does not include an explicit discussion of vital factors such as noise and feedback loops. It also does not talk about the influence of physical, emotional, social, and cultural contexts.{{sfn|Sapienza|Iyer|Veenstra|2015|p=599–622}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=154|loc=Lasswell's model of communication}}{{sfn|Tengan|Aigbavboa|Thwala|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8nQhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT110 110]}} These shortcomings have prompted some theorists to expand Lasswell's model. For example, Richard Braddock published an extension in 1958 including two additional questions: "Under What Circumstances?" and "For What Purpose?".{{sfn|Sapienza|Iyer|Veenstra|2015|p=599–622}}{{sfn|Feicheng|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E4pyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}}{{sfn|Braddock|1958|p=88–93}}

=== Shannon and Weaver Modal ===

{{Main|Shannon–Weaver model}}

[[File:Shannon-Weaver_model_of_communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Shannon–Weaver model of communication {{sfn|Weaver|1998|p=7}}]]

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The Shannon–Weaver model has been influential in the fields of communication theory and [[information theory]].{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 6–10]|loc=1. Communication theory}}{{sfn|Januszewski|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mlZsIIoOaSYC&pg=PA29 29]}} However, it has been criticized because it simplifies some parts of the communicative process. For example, it presents communication as a one-way process and not as a dynamic interaction of messages going back and forth between both participants.{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}}{{sfn|Marsh|1983|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wtpgvb6o94C&pg=PA358 358]}}

=== Newcomb Modal ===

[[File:Newcomb's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1|alt=Diagram of Newcomb's model of communication|The basic components of Newcomb's model are two communicators (A and B) and a topic (X). The arrows symbolize the orientations the communicators have toward each other and toward the topic.{{sfn|Newcomb|1953|p=[https://philpapers.org/rec/NEWAAT-4 394]}}]]

Newcomb's model was first published by [[Theodore_Newcomb|Theodore HM. Newcomb]] in his 1953 paper "An approach to the study of communicative acts".{{sfn|Newcomb|1953|p=[https://philpapers.org/rec/NEWAAT-4 393–404]}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}} It is called the ABX model of communication since it understands communication in terms of three components: two parties (A and B) interacting with each other about a topic or object (X). A and B can be persons or groups, such as trade unions or nations. X can be any part of their shared environment like a specific thing or another person.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 31–32]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Feather|1967|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H4ardmrt5rkC&pg=PA135 135–7]}} The ABX model differs from earlier models by focusing on the [[social relation]] between the communicators in the form of the orientations or attitudes they have toward each other and toward the topic.{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}}{{sfn|Gałajda|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FXkoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}}{{sfn|Fiske|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfEtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–32]}} The orientations can be favorable or unfavorable and include beliefs. They have a big impact on how communication unfolds. It is relevant, for example, whether A and B like each other and whether they have the same attitude towards X.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 31–32]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Ahmet|Can|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lffZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53–4]}}

Newcomb understands communication as a "learned response to strain" caused by discrepancies between orientations.{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hLpACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27–8]}} The social function of communication is to maintain equilibrium in the [[social system]] by keeping the different orientations in balance.{{sfn|Fiske|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfEtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–32]}} In Newcomb's words, communication enables "two or more individuals to maintain simultaneous orientation to each other and towards objects of the external environment".{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}} The orientations of A and B are subject to change and influence each other. Significant discrepancies between them, such as divergent opinions on X, cause a strain in the relation. In such cases, communication aims to reduce the strain and restore balance through the exchange of information about the object.{{sfn|Feather|1967|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H4ardmrt5rkC&pg=PA135 135–7]}}{{sfn|Gałajda|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FXkoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}}{{sfn|Ahmet|Can|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lffZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53–4]}} For example, if A and B are friends and X is someone both know, then equilibrium means that they have the same attitude towards X. However, there is a disequilibrium or strain if A likes X but B doesn'tdoes not. This creates a tendency for A and B to exchange information about X until they arrive at a shared attitude. The more important X is to A and B, the more urgent this tendency is.{{sfn|Fiske|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfEtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–32]}}

[[File:Westley and MacLean's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Diagram of Westley and MacLean's model of communication|Westley and MacLean's expansion of Newcomb's model.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 33]}}]]

An influential expansion of Newcomb's model is due to Westley and MacLean. They introduce the idea of [[asymmetry of information]]: the sender (A) is aware of several topics (X₁ to X₃) and has to compose the message (X') to communicate to the receiver (B). B's direct perception is limited to only a few of these topics (X₁B).{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 32–34]|loc=2. Other models}} Another addition is the inclusion of feedback (fBA) from the receiver to the sender.{{sfn|Gałajda|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FXkoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} Westley and MacLean also propose a further expansion to account for mass communication. For this purpose, they include an additional component, C, that has the role of a [[gatekeeper]] filtering the original message for the mass audience.{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 32–34]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hLpACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 38–40]}}

=== Schramm Modal ===

{{main|Schramm's model of communication}}

[[File:Schramm's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Schramm's model of communication differs from earlier models by including a feedback loop.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 8]|loc=How communication works}}]]

Schramm's model of communication is one of the earliest interaction models of communication.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA176 176]}}{{sfn|Steinberg|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VPs3kidEqXYC&pg=PA18 18]}}{{sfn|Bowman|Targowski|1987|p=21–34}} It was published by [[Wilbur Schramm]] in 1954 as a response to and an improvement over linear transmission models of communication, such as Lasswell's model and the Shannon–Weaver model.{{sfn|Liu|Volcic|Gallois|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QfSICwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 38]}}{{sfn|Schwartz|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=K92eBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 52]}} The main difference in this regard is that Schramm does not see the audience as passive recipients. Instead, he understands them as active participants that respond by sending their own message as a form of feedback.{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Bowman|Targowski|1987|p=21–34}}{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 4, 7–9, 16]|loc=How communication works}} Feedback forms part of many types of communication and makes it easier for the participants to identify and resolve possible misunderstandings.{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}

[[File:Schramm's model - fields of experience.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|One requirement of successful communication is that the message is located in the overlap of the fields of experience of the participants.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 6]|loc=How communication works}}]]

For Schramm, communication is based on the relation between a source and a destination and consists in sharing ideas or information.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Ruben|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fm5QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} For this to happen, the source has to encode their idea in symbolic form as a message.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA176 176]}}{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3–5]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Moore|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=icMsdAGHQpEC&pg=PA90 90–1]}} This message is sent to the destination using a channel, such as sound waves or ink on paper.{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3–5]|loc=How communication works}} The destination has to decode and interpret the message in order to reconstruct the original idea. The processes of encoding and decoding correspond to the roles of transmitter and receiver in the Shannon–Weaver model.{{sfn|SchwartzLiu|2010Volcic|pGallois|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=K92eBQAAQBAJQfSICwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52PA36 5236–38]}} According to Schramm, these processes are influenced by the fields of [[experience]] of each participant. A field of experience includes past life experiences and affects what the participant understands and is familiar with.{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 6–7]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Dwyer|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhHiBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10]}} Communication fails if the message is outside the receiver's field of experience. In this case, the receiver is unable to decode it and connect it to the sender's idea.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 6–8]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Moore|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=icMsdAGHQpEC&pg=PA90 90–1]}}{{sfn|Meng|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b0HWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 120]}} Other sources of error are external noise or mistakes in the phases of decoding and encoding.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3–5, 13–16]|loc=How communication works}} Schramm holds that successful communication is about realizing an intended effect. He discusses the conditions for this to be possible. They include making sure that one has the receiver's [[attention]], that the message is understandable, and that the audience is able and motivated to react to the message in the intended way.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 13]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Babe|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YAKeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 90]}}

In the 1970s, Schramm proposed modifications to his original model to take into account the discoveries made in [[communication studies]] in the preceding decades.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 30–31]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Schramm|1971|p=6}} His new approach gives special emphasis to the relation between the participants. The relation determines the goal of communication and the roles played by the participants.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 30–31]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 364]|loc=relational models}}{{sfn|Schramm|1971|p=7-8}}

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All these steps are creative processes that select some features to be included.{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=112-3|loc=Gerbner's model of communication}} For example, the event is never perceived in its entirety. Instead, the communicator has to select and interpret its most salient features. The same happens when encoding the message: the percept is usually too complex to be fully communicated and only its most significant aspects are expressed. Selection also concerns the choice of the code and channel to be used. The availability of a channel differs from person to person and from situation to situation. For example, many people do not have access to mass media, like television, to send their message to a wide audience.{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 24–30]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Holmes|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CsWBdJzPcBcC&pg=PA57 57–8]}} Gerbner's emphasis on the relation between message and reality has been influential for subsequent models of communication. However, Gerbner's model still suffers from many of the limitations of the earlier models it is based on. An example is the focus on the linear transmission of information without an in-depth discussion of the role of feedback loops. Another issue concerns the question of how meaning is created.{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 24–30]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Beck|Bennett|Wall|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WICsoZhPm1IC&pg=PP105 93–102]}}{{sfn|McKeown|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1f6JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34]}}

=== Berlo Modal ===

{{main|Source-Message-Channel-ReceiverSource–message–channel–receiver model of communication}}

[[File:SMCR model - full.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of the SMCR model|upright=1.5|Berlo's model includes a detailed discussion of the four main components of communication and their different aspects.{{sfn|Berlo|1960|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0k9IAAAAMAAJ 72]|loc=3. The fidelity of communication}}{{sfn|Mannan|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G-slBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT19 19]}}]]

Berlo's model is a linear transmission model of communication. It was published by [[David Berlo]] in 1960 and was influenced by earlier models, such as the Shannon–Weaver model and Schramm's model.{{sfn|Berlo|1960|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0k9IAAAAMAAJ 40]|loc=3. The fidelity of communication}}{{sfn|Melkote|Steeves|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PKAi6t2e5AEC&pg=PA108 108]}}{{sfn|Straubhaar|LaRose|Davenport|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jUR-BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT47 18–9]}} It is usually referred to as the Source-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) model because of its four main components (source, message, channel, and receiver).{{sfn|Pande|2020|p=[https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-mass-media-and-society/i15120.xml 1588–1589]|loc=SMCR Model}}{{sfn|Tengan|Aigbavboa|Thwala|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8nQhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT112 94]}} Each of these components is characterized by various aspects and the main focus of the model is a detailed discussion of each of them. For Berlo, all forms of communication are attempts to influence the [[Human behavior|behavior]] of the receiver. To do so, the source has to express their purpose by encoding it into a message.{{sfn|Berlo|1960|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0k9IAAAAMAAJ 1–22]|loc=1. Communication: Scope and Purpose}}{{sfn|Jandt|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3nqUSY2C4wsC&pg=PA41 41]}}{{sfn|Zaharna|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dSxTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 70]}} This message is sent through a channel to the receiver, who has to decode it in order to understand it and react to it.{{sfn|Pande|2020|p=[https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-mass-media-and-society/i15120.xml 1588–1589]|loc=SMCR Model}}{{sfn|Agunga|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=85WbPmx9QlcC&pg=PA381 381]}} Communication is successful if the reaction of the receiver matches the purpose of the source.{{sfn|Berlo|1960|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0k9IAAAAMAAJ 40–41]|loc=3. The fidelity of communication}}{{sfn|Agunga|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=85WbPmx9QlcC&pg=PA381 381]}}

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For the message, the main factors are code, content, and treatment, each of which can be analyzed in terms of its structure and its elements. The code is the [[sign system]] used to express the message, like a [[language]]. The content is the idea or information expressed in the message. Choosing an appropriate content and the right code to express it matters for successful communication. Berlo uses the term ''treatment'' to refer to this selection. It reflects the style of the source as a communicator. The channel is the medium and process of how the message is transmitted.{{sfn|Berlo|1960|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0k9IAAAAMAAJ 54–63]|loc=3. The fidelity of communication}}{{sfn|Taylor|1962|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/43093688 8–10]}} Berlo analyzes it mainly based on the [[five senses]] used to decode messages: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 12–13, 21]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Tengan|Aigbavboa|Thwala|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8nQhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT112 94]}}{{sfn|Januszewski|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mlZsIIoOaSYC&pg=PA30 30]}} The SMCR model has inspired subsequent theorists.{{sfn|Pande|2020|p=[https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-mass-media-and-society/i15120.xml 1588–1589]|loc=SMCR Model}} However, it is often criticized based on its simplicity because it does not discuss feedback loops and because it does not give enough emphasis on noise and other barriers to communication.{{sfn|Pande|2020|p=[https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-mass-media-and-society/i15120.xml 1588–1589]|loc=SMCR Model}}{{sfn|Tengan|Aigbavboa|Thwala|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8nQhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT112 94]}}{{sfn|Taylor|1962|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/43093688 8–10]}}

=== Dance Modal ===

[[File:Dance's helical model of communication.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of Dance's helical model of communication|Dance's helical model understands communication in analogy to an upward-moving and widening helix.]]

[[Frank E. X. Dance|Frank E. Dance]]'s helical model of communication was initially published in his 1967 book ''Human Communication Theory''.{{sfn|Dance|1967}}{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rn5ACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 16–22]}}{{sfn|Ehrlich|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GmlrWZ_xE1kC&pg=PA98 98–9]}} It is intended as a response to and an improvement over linear and circular models by stressing the dynamic nature of communication and how it changes the participants. Dance sees the fault of linear models as their attempt to understand communication as a linear flow of messages from a sender to a receiver. According to him, this fault is avoided by circular models, which include a feedback loop through which messages are exchanged back and forth. Dance criticizes the circular approach by holding that it "suggests that communication comes back, full circle, to exactly the same point from which it started".{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rn5ACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 16–22]}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XKP-63dSKNsC&pg=PA71 71]}}

Dance holds that a [[helix]] is a more adequate representation of the process of communication since it implies that there is always a forward movement. It shows how the content and structure of earlier communicative acts influence the content and structure of later communicative acts. In this regard, communication has a lasting effect on the communicators and evolves continuously as a process. The upward widening movement of the helix represents a form of [[optimism]] by seeing communication as a means of growth, learning, and improvement.{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rn5ACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 16–22]}}{{sfn|Ehrlich|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GmlrWZ_xE1kC&pg=PA98 98–9]}} The basic idea behind Dance's helical model of communication is also found in [[education theory]] in the [[spiral approach]] proposed by [[Jerome Bruner]].{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XKP-63dSKNsC&pg=PA71 71]}} Dance's model has been criticized based on the claim that it focuses only on some aspects of communication but does not provide a tool for detailed analysis.{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rn5ACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 16–22]}}

=== Barnlund Modal ===

{{main|Barnlund's model of communication}}

Barnlund's model is an influential transactional model of communication first published in 1970.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=175–6|loc=Constitutive View of Communication}}{{sfn|Lawson|Gill|Feekery|Witsel|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIOWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 76–7]}}{{sfn|Barnlund|2013}} Its goal is to avoid the inaccuracies of earlier models and account for communication in all its complexity. This includes dismissing the idea that communication is defined as the transmission of ideas from a sender to a receiver.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=175–6|loc=Constitutive View of Communication}} For Barnlund, communication "is the production of meaning, rather than the production of messages".{{sfn|Barnlund|2013|p=48}} He holds that the world and its objects lack [[Meaning (philosophy)|meaning]] on their own. They are only meaningful to the extent that people [[Interpretation (philosophy)|interpret]] them and assign meaning to them by engaging in the processes of decoding and encoding. In doing so, people try to decrease uncertainty and arrive at a shared understanding.{{sfn|Lawson|Gill|Feekery|Witsel|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIOWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 76–7]}}{{sfn|Barnlund|2013|p=47}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IdGBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20–22]}}

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* {{cite book |last1=SchrammScott |first1=WilburJohn |titlelast2=TheMarshall Process|first2=Gordon and|title=A EffectsDictionary of Mass CommunicationSociology |date=19542009 |publisher=Oxford University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |url=https://bookswww.googleoxfordreference.com/books?iddisplay/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100515181;jsessionid=z2aaAQAACAAJA1623E3458FCA323C4BDA9C013BE7253 |language=en |chapter=Howsocial communicationconstructionism works |pages=3–26 |isbn=9780252001970}}

* {{cite book |last1=SchwartzSelnow |first1=DavidGary W. |titlelast2=EncyclopediaCrano of|first2=William KnowledgeD. Management|title=Planning, SecondImplementing, and Evaluating Targeted Communication Programs: A Manual for Business EditionCommunicators |date=31 July 20101987 |publisher=IGIGreenwood GlobalPublishing Group |isbn=9781599049328978-0-89930-208-9 |page=52124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K92eBQAAQBAJusrTIGmPucEC&pg=PA52PA124 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=ScottSereno |first1=JohnKenneth K. |last2=MarshallMortensen |first2=GordonC. David |titleeditor1-last=ASereno Dictionary|editor1-first=Kenneth K. |editor2-last=Mortensen |editor2-first=C. David |title=Foundations of SociologyCommunication Theory |date=20091970 |publisher=OxfordHarper University& PressRow |isbn=978-0-19-953300-89780060446239 |url=https://wwwbooks.oxfordreferencegoogle.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100515181;jsessionidbooks?id=A1623E3458FCA323C4BDA9C013BE7253vQwEAQAAIAAJ |language=en |chapter=socialCommunication Theory: Decoding-Encoding |pages=122–3 constructionism}}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite bookjournal |last1=SelnowShannon |first1=Gary WC. |last2=Crano |first2=William DE. |title=Planning,A Implementing,Mathematical andTheory Evaluating Targetedof Communication Programs:|journal=Bell A Manual forSystem BusinessTechnical CommunicatorsJournal |date=1987July 1948 |publishervolume=Greenwood Publishing Group27 |isbnissue=978-0-89930-208-93 |pagepages=124379–423 |urldoi=https:/10.1002/booksj.google1538-7305.com/books?id=usrTIGmPucEC&pg=PA1241948.tb01338.x |language=en}}

* {{cite journal |last1=Stead |first1=Bette Ann |title=Berlo's Communication Process Model as Applied to the Behavioral Theories of Maslow, Herzberg, and McGregor |journal=The Academy of Management Journal |date=1972 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=389–394 |doi=10.2307/254868 |jstor=254868 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/254868 |issn=0001-4273 }}

* {{cite book |last1=Sereno |first1=Kenneth K. |last2=Mortensen |first2=C. David |editor1-last=Sereno |editor1-first=Kenneth K. |editor2-last=Mortensen |editor2-first=C. David |title=Foundations of Communication Theory |date=1970 |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=9780060446239 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQwEAQAAIAAJ |language=en |chapter=Communication Theory: Decoding-Encoding |pages=122–3}}

* {{cite journalbook |last1=ShannonSteinberg |first1=C. E.Sheila |title=AIntroduction Mathematical Theory ofto Communication |journal=BellCourse SystemBook Technical1: JournalThe Basics |date=July 19481995 |volumepublisher=27Juta and Company Ltd |issueisbn=39780702136498 |pages=379–42318 |doiurl=10.1002https:/j/books.1538-7305google.1948.tb01338.xcom/books?id=VPs3kidEqXYC&pg=PA18 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=WoodSteinberg |first1=Julia T.Sheila |title=InterpersonalAn Introduction to Communication: Everyday EncountersStudies |date=1 January 20122007 |publisher=CengageJuta Learningand Company Ltd |isbn=978-1-133-71157-5 |pages=15–79780702172618 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9d4JAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT34g8GRgXYeo_kC |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite journal |last1=Stead |first1=Bette Ann |title=Berlo's Communication Process Model as Applied to the Behavioral Theories of Maslow, Herzberg, and McGregor |journal=The Academy of Management Journal |date=1972 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=389–394 |doi=10.2307/254868 |jstor=254868 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/254868 |issn=0001-4273}}

* {{cite book |last1=SteinbergStraubhaar |first1=SheilaJoseph |titlelast2=IntroductionLaRose to|first2=Robert Communication|last3=Davenport Course|first3=Lucinda Book|title=Media 1Now: TheUnderstanding BasicsMedia, Culture, and Technology |date=19951 January 2015 |publisher=JutaCengage and Company LtdLearning |isbn=97807021364989781305533851 |pages=1818–9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPs3kidEqXYCjUR-BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18PT47 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite bookjournal |last1=SteinbergTaylor |first1=SheilaHal R. |title=AnA IntroductionModel tofor the Communication StudiesProcess |journal=STWP Review |date=20071962 |publishervolume=Juta9 and|issue=3 Company Ltd|pages=8–10 |isbnjstor=978070217261843093688 |url=https://bookswww.googlejstor.comorg/books?id=g8GRgXYeo_kCstable/43093688 |languageissn=en2376-0761 }}

* {{cite book |last1=StraubhaarTengan |first1=JosephCallistus |last2=LaRoseAigbavboa |first2=RobertClinton |last3=DavenportThwala |first3=LucindaWellington Didibhuku |title=MediaConstruction Now:Project UnderstandingMonitoring Media,and Culture,Evaluation: andAn TechnologyIntegrated Approach |date=127 JanuaryApril 20152021 |publisher=Cengage LearningRoutledge |isbn=9781305533851 |pages=18–99781000381412 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jUR-BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT478nQhEAAAQBAJ |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite journalbook |last1=TaylorTrenholm |first1=Hal R.Sarah |title=AThinking ModelThrough forCommunication: An Introduction to the CommunicationStudy Processof |journal=STWPHuman ReviewCommunication |date=196223 |volume=9August 2020 |issuepublisher=3Routledge |pagesisbn=8–109781000164985 |jstorpage=4309368860 |url=https://wwwbooks.jstorgoogle.orgcom/stable/43093688books?id=M2r0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT60 |issnlanguage=2376-0761en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |title=Communication in the Real World |date=2013 |publisher=University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing |isbn=9781946135070 |url=https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/ |language=en-us |author=UMN staff }}

* {{cite book |last1=Tengan |first1=Callistus |last2=Aigbavboa |first2=Clinton |last3=Thwala |first3=Wellington Didibhuku |title=Construction Project Monitoring and Evaluation: An Integrated Approach |date=27 April 2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781000381412 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nQhEAAAQBAJ |language=en}}

* {{cite book |last1=Trenholm |first1=Sarah |title=Thinking16.1 Through Communication: An Introduction to the Study of HumanIntrapersonal Communication |date=23 August 20202010 |publisher=RoutledgeUniversity of Minnesota Libraries Publishing |isbn=9781000164985 |page=609781946135056 |url=https://booksopen.googlelib.comumn.edu/businesscommunication/chapter/16-1-intrapersonal-communication/books?id=M2r0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT60 |language=en |author=UMN staff }}

* {{cite book |last1=Vieira |first1=Patrícia |last2=Gagliano |first2=Monica |last3=Ryan |first3=John Charles |title=CommunicationThe Green Thread: Dialogues inwith the RealVegetal World |date=201324 December 2015 |publisher=UniversityLexington of Minnesota Libraries PublishingBooks |isbn=9781946135070978-1-4985-1060-8 |page=40 |url=https://openbooks.libgoogle.umn.edu/communicationcom/books?id=ELpRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |language=en-us |author=UMN staff}}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |titlelast1=16Vocate |first1=Donna R.1 |title=Intrapersonal Communication: Different Voices, Different Minds |date=20101994 |publisher=UniversityPsychology of Minnesota Libraries PublishingPress |isbn=9781946135056978-0-8058-1128-5 |pages=181–2 |url=https://openbooks.libgoogle.umn.edu/businesscommunication/chapter/16-1-intrapersonal-communicationcom/books?id=Jnc_rV2hjgcC&pg=PA181 |language=en |author=UMN staff}}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=VieiraWatson |first1=PatríciaJames |last2=GaglianoHill |first2=Monica |last3=Ryan |first3=John CharlesAnne |title=TheDictionary Greenof Thread:Media Dialoguesand withCommunication the Vegetal WorldStudies |date=2416 DecemberFebruary 20152012 |publisher=Lexington BooksBloomsbury |isbn=978-1-4985-1060-8 |page=409781849665636 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ELpRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40XKP-63dSKNsC |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

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* {{cite bookjournal |last1=WatsonWenxiu |first1=James |last2=Hill |first2=AnnePeng |title=DictionaryAnalysis of New Media and Communication StudiesBased |date=22on OctoberLasswell's 2015"5W" Model |publisherjournal=BloomsburyJournal Publishingof USAEducational |isbn=9781628921496and Social Research |pagesdate=20–221 September 2015 |urldoi=https:10.5901//booksjesr.google2015.com/books?idv5n3p245 |pages=IdGBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20245–9 |languagedoi-access=enfree }}

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* {{cite journalbook |last1=WenxiuWodak |first1=PengRuth |last2=Koller |first2=Veronika |title=AnalysisHandbook of New Media Communication Basedin onthe Lasswell'sPublic "5W" ModelSphere |journaldate=Journal27 ofAugust Educational2008 and|publisher=Walter Socialde ResearchGruyter |dateisbn=1978-3-11-019898-0 September 2015|page=26 |doiurl=10.5901https:/jesr/books.2015google.v5n3p245 |pagescom/books?id=245–9IFVas4Lwqz0C&pg=PA26 |doi-accesslanguage=freeen }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |lastlast1=WestWood |firstfirst1=RichardJulia LT. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/226356706 |title=Introducing communication theoryInterpersonal Communication: analysisEveryday and applicationEncounters |date=20101 January 2012 |publisher=McGraw-HillCengage |others=Lynn H. TurnerLearning |isbn=978-01-07133-33850771157-5 |editionpages=4th15–7 |___locationurl=Bostonhttps://books.google.com/books?id=9d4JAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 |oclclanguage=226356706en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=WodakZaharna |first1=RuthR. |last2=Koller |first2=VeronikaS. |title=HandbookBoundary Spanners of CommunicationHumanity: inThree theLogics of Communications and Public SphereDiplomacy for Global Collaboration |date=27 August 20082022 |publisher=WalterOxford deUniversity GruyterPress |isbn=978-3-11-019898-09780190930271 |page=2670 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IFVas4Lwqz0CdSxTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26PA70 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=Wood |first1=Julia T. |title=Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters |date=1 January 2012 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-133-71157-5 |pages=15–7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9d4JAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 |language=en}}

* {{cite book |last1=Zaharna |first1=R. S. |title=Boundary Spanners of Humanity: Three Logics of Communications and Public Diplomacy for Global Collaboration |date=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190930271 |page=70 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSxTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 |language=en}}

{{refend}}