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{{short description|How individuals react to fear-inducing messages}}
The '''extended parallel process model''' ('''EPPM''') is a fear appeal theory developed by communications scholar [[Kim Witte]] that illustrates how individuals react to fear-inducing messages.<ref>{{cite
The EPPM was developed by Witte as a response to the significant inconsistencies in fear appeal literature, serving as an extension of previous fear appeal models, hence the use of 'extended' in name 'EPPM'. The model is originally based on Leventhal's Parallel Process Model – a danger and fear control framework that studied how adaptive protective behaviour stemmed from attempts of danger control.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Leventhal H | title = Fear appeals and persuasion: the differentiation of a motivational construct | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 61 | issue = 6 | pages = 1208–1224 | date = June 1971 | pmid = 4110702 | pmc = 1529874 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.61.6.1208 }}</ref> It also significantly draws from Roger's [[Protection motivation theory]], which proposes two responses to fear-inducing stimuli: threat appraisal and coping appraisal.
The model's main theory is that when confronted with a fear-inducing stimulus, humans tend to engage in two simultaneous ways of message processing: a perceived efficacy appraisal ([[cognitive processing]]) and a perceived threat appraisal (emotional processing). Differences in message appraisal then lead to two behavioural outcomes, with individuals engaging in either a danger control process or a fear control process. In the case of the message being perceived as having no element of threat, individuals do not exhibit a response, and the message is ignored. The EPPM
Witte's EPPM expands on previous fear appeal studies by explaining the reasons for failure in fear appeals and reincorporating fear as a central variable in the model.
The EPPM concludes that a fear control process leads to message rejection, while a danger control process leads to message acceptance, leading to adaptive behavioural changes.
== Background ==
Witte's motivations for designing an updated fear appeal model was
Two main components of large-scale public messaging that induce behavioural change are fear appeals and fear appraisals. [[Fear appeal|Fear appeals]] are specifically designed to elicit fear and nudge individuals to adapt to the recommendations in the message. They find their use in public health campaigns and political adverts
* Message: The content that is included in the fear-inducing message
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* Audience: The characteristics of the audience receiving the message
Fear appraisals are the mental evaluations made in response to experiencing fear-inducing stimuli and are also known as threat appraisals. Fear appeal literature is primarily focused on understanding key fear appraisal processes in humans, with the intention of using it to drive social
== Components
The EPPM uses persuasive fear-inducing messages to induce intended behavioural responses.
=== Fear
[[File:Extended Parallel Process Model.png|400px|thumb|Illustration of the Extended Parallel Process Model.]]According to fear appeal studies, a fear appeal has two components: a component of threat and a component of efficacy. These two components are further divided into two categories each. The threat component is composed of ''
These four key factors, as defined by the EPPM, predict the likely outcome of communications that involve a fear appeal.
'''Threat Variables'''▼
* ''Susceptibility'' – The perception the individual has of how likely the threat is to impact them.
* ''Severity'' – The perception the individual has of the magnitude of the threat.
'''Efficacy
* ''Self-
* ''Response
The outcome of fear appeals is determined by an ''appraisal'', that is, the evaluation of the message as either dangerous or indifferent.
=== Fear
[[Appraisal theory|Appraisal Theory]] states that an individual makes either an emotional or affective response to external stimuli. The EPPM outlines two primary appraisals an individual makes in response to a fear appeal: a threat appraisal, followed by an efficacy appraisal.
After appraisals of the fear appeal, individuals then take action based on whether the threat is imminent or trivial.
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The EPPM predicts three possible outputs after the fear appraisal is carried out:
== Applications ==▼
▲'''Fear control'''– The model predicts that if an individual perceives their ability to control risk as low, even if the severity and susceptibility are perceived as high, they are likely to take steps to control their fear instead. Fear control responses are defined as coping mechanisms that reduce fear and include [[denial]], [[psychological reactance]] and [[Avoidance response|defensive avoidance]]. These are [[maladaptive]] changes, or counterproductive behaviours. Fear controlling behaviour may involve the use of [[cognitive]] [[defence mechanism]]s such as "''It will happen to me sooner or later''", in order to manage the state of [[anxiety]].
The EPPM model is mainly used in [[Social and behavior change communication|
Multiple versions of the EPPM are employed in health campaigns. For example, EPPM-based campaigns have helped increase colorectal cancer screening participation among young adults
▲'''No Response''' – The severity or susceptibility of the danger is perceived as low, and the individual rejects the message. There is no behavioural change.
Other usages of EPPM lie in shaping public perceptions, such as in political adverts, climate change messages, and pandemic responses. <ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = von Gottberg C, Krumm S, Porzsolt F, Kilian R | title = The analysis of factors affecting municipal employees' willingness to report to work during an influenza pandemic by means of the extended parallel process model (EPPM) | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 26 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26757713 | pmc = 4711035 | doi = 10.1186/s12889-015-2663-8 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Roser-Renouf C, Maibach EW, Leiserowitz A, Zhao X |date=July 2014|title=The genesis of climate change activism: from key beliefs to political action |journal=Climatic Change|language=en|volume=125|issue=2|pages=163–178|doi=10.1007/s10584-014-1173-5|issn=0165-0009|doi-access=free}}</ref>
▲== Applications ==
▲The EPPM model is mainly used in [[Social and behavior change communication|Social and behaviour change communication]] (SBCC). Practitioners design a general communications program, such as a campaign or an advert, and then test the effectiveness of the program through implementation. SBCC methods in healthcare, education, and marketing have employed the EPPM to induce behavioural change in patients and customers.
▲Multiple versions of the EPPM are employed in health campaigns. For example, EPPM-based campaigns have helped increase colorectal cancer screening participation among young adults.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Birmingham WC, Hung M, Boonyasiriwat W, Kohlmann W, Walters ST, Burt RW, Stroup AM, Edwards SL, Schwartz MD, Lowery JT, Hill DA, Wiggins CL, Higginbotham JC, Tang P, Hon SD, Franklin JD, Vernon S, Kinney AY | display-authors = 6 | title = Effectiveness of the extended parallel process model in promoting colorectal cancer screening | journal = Psycho-Oncology | volume = 24 | issue = 10 | pages = 1265–1278 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26194469 | pmc = 7161702 | doi = 10.1002/pon.3899 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pengchit W, Walters ST, Simmons RG, Kohlmann W, Burt RW, Schwartz MD, Kinney AY | title = Motivation-based intervention to promote colonoscopy screening: an integration of a fear management model and motivational interviewing | journal = Journal of Health Psychology | volume = 16 | issue = 8 | pages = 1187–1197 | date = November 2011 | pmid = 21464114 | pmc = 3162074 | doi = 10.1177/1359105311402408 }}</ref> Other usages of EPPM lie in shaping public perceptions, such as the adverts on lockdown measures and pandemic protocols during the [[COVID-19 pandemic|Covid-19 Pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Tsoy D, Tirasawasdichai T, Kurpayanidi KI |date=2021 |title=Role of Social Media in Shaping Public Risk Perception during COVID-19 Pandemic: A Theoretical Review |journal=International Journal of Management Science and Business Administration |volume=7|issue=2|pages=35–41|doi=10.18775/ijmsba.1849-5664-5419.2014.72.1005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhao S, Wu X | title = From Information Exposure to Protective Behaviors: Investigating the Underlying Mechanism in COVID-19 Outbreak Using Social Amplification Theory and Extended Parallel Process Model | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 12 | pages = 631116 | date = 2021 | pmid = 34113280 | pmc = 8185043 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631116 }}</ref>
== Criticisms ==
While the EPPM has been effective in health campaigns and behavioural change interventions, there are limitations that have been pointed out through rigorous [[Meta-analysis|meta-analytical]] studies.
Reviews have highlighted the many applications of the EPPM model in its 20 years since initial publication <ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Maloney EK, Lapinski MK, Witte K |date= April 2011 |title=Fear Appeals and Persuasion: A Review and Update of the Extended Parallel Process Model: Fear Appeals and Persuasion |journal=Social and Personality Psychology Compass|language=en|volume=5|issue=4|pages=206–219|doi=10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00341.x}}</ref> but significant theoretical questions on the operationalization of key constructs remain and not all of its hypotheses have received empirical support.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Popova L | title = The extended parallel process model: illuminating the gaps in research | journal = Health Education & Behavior | volume = 39 | issue = 4 | pages = 455–473 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22002250 | doi = 10.1177/1090198111418108 | s2cid = 22928121 }}</ref>
Lucy Popova's '''The Extended Parallel Process Model: Illuminating the Gaps in Research''<nowiki/>', is an extensive review on the theoretical and empirical applications of the EPPM. <ref name=":0" /> Popova discovered that the strong theoretical foundations has some inconsistencies in a few of its operational definitions. A systematic review of existing literature on EPPMs found that its propositions had no clear empirical support. The outcomes of fear appeals differ slightly from what the EPPM claims. This questions the practical validity of the EPPM.
== See also ==
* [[Social and behavior change communication|Social and behaviour change communication]] – Communication strategies designed to create positive behavioural interventions
* [[Behavioural change theories]] – Theories that attempt to use wide explanations to predict why human behaviours change
* [[Theory of planned behavior]] –
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[[Category:Attitude change]]
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