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{{Short description|Field of research and study}}
'''Gender and development''' is an interdisciplinary field of research and applied study that implements a [[Feminism|feminist]] approach to understanding and addressing the disparate impact that [[economic development]] and [[globalization]] have on people based upon their ___location, gender, class background, and other socio-political identities. A strictly economic approach to development views a country's development in quantitative terms such as job creation, inflation control, and high employment – all of which aim to improve the
The history of this field dates back to the 1950s, when studies of economic development first brought women into its discourse,<ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=Gender Planning and Development. Theory, Practice and Training|last=Moser|first=Caroline|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=978-0-203-41194-0|___location=New York|page=3}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{cite book|title=Gender, development, and globalization : economics as if all people mattered|last=Lourdes|first=Benería|others=Berik, Günseli,, Floro, Maria|isbn=9780415537483|edition= Second|___location=New York|oclc=903247621|date = 2014-11-11}}</ref> focusing on women only as subjects of welfare policies – notably those centered on [[Aid#Emergency aid|food aid]] and [[family planning]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPRH/Resources/GlobalFamilyPlanningRevolution.pdf|title=The Global Family Planning Revolution|last1=Robinson|first1=Warren C.|last2=Ross|first2=John A.|date=2007|website=World Bank|access-date=10 November 2018}}</ref> The focus of women in development increased throughout the decade, and by 1962, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] called for the [[United Nations Commission on the Status of Women|Commission on the Status of Women]] to collaborate with the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary General]] and a number of other UN sectors to develop a longstanding program dedicated to women's advancement in developing countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1962/36.pdf|title=United Nations Assistance for the Advancement of Women in Developing Countries
Since Boserup's consider that development affects men and women differently, the study of gender's relation to development has gathered major interest amongst scholars and international policymakers. The field has undergone major theoretical shifts, beginning with [[Women in Development]] (WID), shifting to Women and Development (WAD), and finally becoming the contemporary Gender and Development (GAD). Each of these frameworks emerged as an evolution of its predecessor, aiming to encompass a broader range of topics and [[social science]] perspectives.<ref name=":02" /> In addition to these frameworks, international financial institutions such as the [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) have implemented policies, programs, and research regarding gender and development, contributing a [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] and smart economics approach to the study. Examples of these policies and programs include [[Structural adjustment|Structural Adjustment Programs]] (SAPs), [[microfinance]], [[outsourcing]], and [[Privatization|privatizing public enterprises]],<ref name=":02" /> all of which direct focus towards economic growth and suggest that advancement towards gender equality will follow. These approaches have been challenged by alternative perspectives such as [[Marxism]] and [[ecofeminism]], which respectively reject international capitalism<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kiely|first=Ray|date=2005|title=Capitalist Expansion and the
▲The history of this field dates back to the 1950s, when studies of economic development first brought women into its discourse,<ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=Gender Planning and Development. Theory, Practice and Training|last=Moser|first=Caroline|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=978-0-203-41194-0|___location=New York|page=3}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{cite book|title=Gender, development, and globalization : economics as if all people mattered|last=Lourdes|first=Benería|others=Berik, Günseli,, Floro, Maria|isbn=9780415537483|edition= Second|___location=New York|oclc=903247621|date = 2014-11-11}}</ref> focusing on women only as subjects of welfare policies – notably those centered on [[Aid#Emergency aid|food aid]] and [[family planning]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPRH/Resources/GlobalFamilyPlanningRevolution.pdf|title=The Global Family Planning Revolution|last1=Robinson|first1=Warren C.|last2=Ross|first2=John A.|date=2007|website=World Bank|access-date=10 November 2018}}</ref> The focus of women in development increased throughout the decade, and by 1962, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] called for the [[United Nations Commission on the Status of Women|Commission on the Status of Women]] to collaborate with the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary General]] and a number of other UN sectors to develop a longstanding program dedicated to women's advancement in developing countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1962/36.pdf|title=United Nations Assistance for the Advancement of Women in Developing Countries [1962]|date=1962|website=World Legal Information Institute|access-date=10 November 2018}}</ref> A decade later, feminist economist [[Ester Boserup]]’s pioneering book ''Women’s Role in Economic Development'' (1970) was published, radically shifting perspectives of development and contributing to the birth of what eventually became the gender and development field.<ref name=":02" />
'''Gender Roles in Childhood Development'''
▲Since Boserup's consider that development affects men and women differently, the study of gender's relation to development has gathered major interest amongst scholars and international policymakers. The field has undergone major theoretical shifts, beginning with [[Women in Development]] (WID), shifting to Women and Development (WAD), and finally becoming the contemporary Gender and Development (GAD). Each of these frameworks emerged as an evolution of its predecessor, aiming to encompass a broader range of topics and [[social science]] perspectives.<ref name=":02" /> In addition to these frameworks, international financial institutions such as the [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) have implemented policies, programs, and research regarding gender and development, contributing a [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] and smart economics approach to the study. Examples of these policies and programs include [[Structural adjustment|Structural Adjustment Programs]] (SAPs), [[microfinance]], [[outsourcing]], and [[Privatization|privatizing public enterprises]],<ref name=":02" /> all of which direct focus towards economic growth and suggest that advancement towards gender equality will follow. These approaches have been challenged by alternative perspectives such as [[Marxism]] and [[ecofeminism]], which respectively reject international capitalism<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kiely|first=Ray|date=2005|title=Capitalist Expansion and the Imperialism-Globalization Debate: Contemporary Marxist Explanations|journal=Journal of International Relations and Development|volume=8|pages=27–57|doi=10.1057/palgrave.jird.1800043|s2cid=144812030}}</ref> and the gendered exploitation of the environment via science, technology, and capitalist production.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nature.berkeley.edu/departments/espm/env-hist/articles/84.pdf|title=The Scientific Revolution and The Death of Nature|last=Merchant|first=Carolyn|date=2006|website=Berkeley University of California: College of Natural Resources|access-date=9 December 2018}}</ref> Marxist perspectives of development advocate for the redistribution of wealth and power in efforts to reduce global labor exploitation and class inequalities,<ref name=":02" /> while ecofeminist perspectives confront industrial practices that accompany development, including [[deforestation]], [[pollution]], [[environmental degradation]], and ecosystem destruction.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mack-Canty|first=Colleen|date=2004|title=Third-Wave Feminism and the Need to Reweave the Nature/Culture Duality|journal=National Women's Studies Association Journal|volume=16|issue=3|pages=154–179|jstor=4317085}}</ref>
''Introduction''
Gender identity formation in early childhood is an important aspect of child development, shaping how individuals see themselves and others in terms of gender (Martin & Ruble, 2010).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Carol Lynn |last2=Ruble |first2=Diane N. |date=2010 |title=Patterns of gender development |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |volume=61 |pages=353–381 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100511 |issn=1545-2085 |pmc=3747736 |pmid=19575615}}</ref> It encompasses the understanding and internalization of societal norms, roles, and expectations associated with a specific gender. As time progresses, there becomes more outlets for these gender roles to be influenced due to the increase outlets of new media. This developmental process begins early and is influenced by various factors, including socialization, cultural norms, and individual experiences. Understanding and addressing gender roles in childhood is essential for promoting healthy identity development and fostering gender equity (Martin & Ruble, 2010).<ref name=":0" />
''Observations of Gender Identity Formation''
Educators have made abundant observations regarding children's expression of gender identity. From an earlier age, children absorb information about gender from various sources, including family, peers, media, and societal norms (Halim, Ruble, Tamis-LeMonda, & Shrout, 2010<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halim |first1=May Ling |last2=Ruble |first2=Diane |title= Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology|chapter=Gender Identity and Stereotyping in Early and Middle Childhood |date=2010 |pages=495–525 |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-08588-024 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1465-1_24 |isbn=978-1-4419-1464-4 }}</ref>). These influences shape their perceptions and behaviors related to gender, leading them to either conform to or challenge gender stereotypes. An example could be when children may exhibit preferences for certain toys, activities, or clothing based on societal expectations associated with their perceived gender because that is what was handed to them or what was made okay from an authority figure, establishing a baseline.
''Teacher Research''
Teacher research plays a crucial role in understanding gender roles in childhood development. Educators often are able to see similarities in children's behavior that reflect societal gender norms, such as boys moving towards rough play or girls engaging in nurturing activities (Solomon, 2016<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Gender Identity and Expression in the Early Childhood Classroom: Influences on Development Within Sociocultural Contexts (Voices) |url=https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/yc/jul2016/gender-identity |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=NAEYC |language=en}}</ref>). These observations prompt more investigation into the factors contributing to these behaviors, including the classroom materials, teacher expectations, and social interactions by examining these factors, educators can gain insights into how gender stereotypes are perpetuated and explore strategies to promote gender equity in the classroom. Since teachers have the educational background of learning about and seeing these developments, it allows them to be great researchers in this subject category.
''Influence of Materials and Teacher Expectations''
The materials provided in the classroom and the requirements established by teachers can influence children's behavior and interactions (Solomon, 2016).<ref name=":3" /> For instance, offering a diverse range of toys, books, and activities can help encourage these children to explore interests outside of traditional gender roles that are trying to be established by external sources (Martin & Ruble, 2013).<ref name=":0" /> Also, creating an environment where all children feel valued regardless of gender can help challenge stereotypes and promote ideal socialization experiences. By being aware of the materials and messages conveyed in the classroom, educators can create an environment that fosters gender diversity and empowers children to express themselves authentically (Solomon 2016<ref name=":3" />).
''Children's Desire and Search for Power''
Children actively seek/express power in interactions with others, often coming upon their understanding of gender idealistic. For example, they may use knowledge of gender norms to assert authority or control over others, such as excluding others from being able to participate in a game because of a gender stereotype like girls cannot play sports game or games that include rough play. These behaviors show children's attempts to sift through social hierarchies and establish identities within the context of expectations. By recognizing and addressing these dynamics, educators can promote more inclusive and equitable interactions among children.
''Early Acquisition of Gender Roles''
Children begin to internalize gender roles from a young age, often as early as infancy. By preschool age, many children have developed some form of understanding on gender stereotypes and expectations (King, 2021<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=King |first1=Tania L |last2=Scovelle |first2=Anna J |last3=Meehl |first3=Anneke |last4=Milner |first4=Allison J |last5=Priest |first5=Naomi |date=June 2021 |title=Gender stereotypes and biases in early childhood: A systematic review |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1836939121999849 |journal=Australasian Journal of Early Childhood |language=en |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=112–125 |doi=10.1177/1836939121999849 |issn=1836-9391|url-access=subscription }}</ref>). These stereotypes are established through various sources, including family, friends, media outlets, and cultural ideals, shaping children's understanding and behaviors related to gender. Education systems, parental influence, and media and store influence can contribute as many of these influences associated different colors with different genders, different influential figures, as well as different toys that are supposed to cater to a specific gender.
''Expressions and Behavior Reflecting Gender Development''
Children's expressions provide insights into their changing understanding of gender roles and relationships. However, it is necessary to be able to demonstrate processes of emotional regulation in situations where the individual needs an adjustment of the emotional response of larger intensity (Sanchis et al. 2020<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sanchis-Sanchis |first1=Alejandro |last2=Grau |first2=Ma Dolores |last3=Moliner |first3=Adoración-Reyes |last4=Morales-Murillo |first4=Catalina Patricia |title= Effects of Age and Gender in Emotion Regulation of Children and Adolescents|journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=2020 |volume=11 |page=946 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00946 |pmid=32528367 |pmc=7265134 |doi-access=free }}</ref>). Some children can develop stern understandings about gender stereotypes, showing a bias or discrimination towards those who do not conform to these norms. Educators play a role in counteracting these beliefs by providing opportunities for reflection and promoting empathy and respect for diverse gender identities (Martin & Ruble, 2010<ref name=":0" />).
''Educational Strategies''
In conclusion, promoting gender equity and challenging traditional gender roles in early childhood takes additional intentional educational strategies. This includes implementing multi-gendered activities, giving examples diverse role models, and offering open-ended materials for activity that encourage creativity (Martin & Ruble, 2010<ref name=":0" />). By creating inclusive learning environments that affirm and celebrate gender diversity, researchers and individuals can support children in developing healthy and positive identities that transcend narrow stereotypes and promote social justice.
==Early approaches==
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'''Theoretical approach'''
The term
The focus of the 1970s [[feminist movements]] and their repeated calls for employment opportunities in the development agenda meant that particular attention was given to the productive labour of women, leaving aside reproductive concerns and social welfare.<ref name="Razavi1995p3"/> This approach was pushed forward by WID advocates, reacting to the general policy environment maintained by early colonial authorities and post-war development authorities, wherein inadequate reference to the work undertook by women as producers was made, as they were almost solely identified as their roles as wives and mothers.<ref name="Razavi1995p3"/> The WID's opposition to this
Reeves and Baden (2000) point out that the WID approach stresses the need for women to play a greater role in the development process. According to this perspective, women's active involvement in policymaking will lead to more successful policies overall.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reeves |first1=Hazel |last2=Baden |first2=Sally |title=Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions (Report 55) |url=https://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/re55.pdf |publisher=University of Sussex
'''Criticism'''
The WID movement faced a number of criticisms; such an approach had in some cases the unwanted consequence of depicting women as a unit whose claims are conditional on its productive value, associating increased female status with the value of cash income in women's lives.<ref name="Razavi1995pi">{{cite
===Women and development (WAD)===
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'''Theoretical approach'''
WAD arose out of a shift in thinking about women's role in development, and concerns about the explanatory limitations of [[modernization theory]].<ref name="Rathgeber, Eva M 1990">Rathgeber, Eva M. 1990.
'''Practical approach'''
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'''Criticism'''
Some of the common critiques of the WAD approach include concerns that the women-only development projects would struggle, or ultimately fail, due to their scale, and the marginalized status of these women. Furthermore, the WAD perspective suffers from a tendency to view women as a class, and pay little attention to the differences among women (such as feminist concept of [[intersectionality]]), including race and ethnicity, and prescribe development endeavors that may only serve to address the needs of a particular group. While an improvement on WID, WAD fails to fully consider the relationships between [[patriarchy]], modes of production, and the marginalization of women. It also presumes that the position of women around the world will improve when international conditions become more equitable. Additionally, WAD has been criticized for its singular preoccupation with the productive side of women's work, while it ignores the reproductive aspect of women's work and lives. Therefore, WID/WAD intervention strategies have tended to concentrate on the development of income-generating activities without taking into account the time burdens that such strategies place on women.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pepe|first=Roberts|date=April 1979|title=The Integration of Women into the Development Process: Some Conceptual Problem|url=https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/123456789/10815/IDSB_10_3_10.1111-j.1759-5436.1979.mp10003013.x.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|journal=IDS Bulletin|volume=10|issue=3|pages=60–66|doi=10.1111/j.1759-5436.1979.mp10003013.x }}</ref> Value is placed on income-generating activities, and none is ascribed to social and cultural reproduction.<ref name="Rathgeber, Eva M 1990"/>
===Gender and development (GAD)===
'''Theoretical approach'''
The Gender and Development (GAD) approach focuses on the socially constructed<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bertrand|first=Tietcheu|title=Being Women and Men in Africa Today: Approaching Gender Roles in Changing African Societies|year=2006|journal=Student World}}</ref>
GAD departs from WID, which discussed women's subordination and lack of inclusion in discussions of international development without examining broader systems of gender relations.<ref>{{cite
Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically with women, but with the way in which a society assigns roles, responsibilities and expectations to both women and men. GAD applies [[gender analysis]] to uncover the ways in which men and women work together, presenting results in neutral terms of economics and efficiency.{{sfn|Shifting views...}} In an attempt to create gender equality (denoting women having the same opportunities as men, including ability to participate in the public sphere),<ref>Development Assistance Committee (DAC), 1998, p.7</ref> GAD policies aim to redefine traditional gender role expectations. Women are expected to fulfill household management tasks, home-based production as well as bearing and raising children and caring for family members. In terms of children, they develop social constructions through observations at a younger age than most people think. Children tend to learn about the differences between male and female actions and objects of use in a specific culture of their environment through observation (Chung & Huang 2021<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Chung |first1=Yi |last2=Huang |first2=Hsin-Hui |date=2021-12-10 |title=Cognitive-Based Interventions Break Gender Stereotypes in Kindergarten Children |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=24 |page=13052 |doi=10.3390/ijerph182413052 |doi-access=free |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=8700911 |pmid=34948661}}</ref>). Around three years old, children learn about stability of gender and demonstrate stereotyping similar to adults regarding toys, clothes, activities, games, colors, and even specific personality descriptions. (2021<ref name=":4" />). By five years of age, they begin to develop identity and to possess stereotyping of personal–social attributes (2021<ref name=":4" />). At that age of their life, children think that they are more similar to their same-gender peers and are likely to compare themselves with characteristics that fit the gender stereotype. After entering primary school, children's gender stereotyping extends to more dimensions, such as career choices, sports, motives to learn subjects which has an impact on the cognition of individuals (2021).<ref name=":4" /> The role of a wife is largely interpreted as 'the responsibilities of motherhood.'<ref>{{cite
GAD has been largely utilized in debates regarding development but this trend is not seen in the actual practice of developmental agencies and plans for development.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Gender and the Political Economy of Development|last=Rai|first=Shirin M.|publisher=Polity|year=2002|isbn=0-7456-1490-6|___location=Malden|pages=44–83|chapter=Gender and Development}}</ref> [[Caroline Moser]] claims WID persists due to the challenging nature of GAD, but [[Shirin M. Rai]] counters this claim noting that the real issue lies in the tendency to overlap WID and GAD in policy. Therefore, it would only be possible if development agencies fully adopted GAD language exclusively.<ref name=":5" /> Caroline Moser developed the [[Moser Gender Planning Framework]] for GAD-oriented development planning in the 1980s while working at the Development Planning Unit of the [[University of London]]. Working with Caren Levy, she expanded it into a methodology for gender policy and planning.{{sfn|March|Smyth|Mukhopadhyay|1999|pp = 55}}
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'''Criticism'''
GAD has been criticized for emphasizing the social differences between men and women while neglecting the bonds between them and also the potential for changes in roles. Another criticism is that GAD does not dig deeply enough into social relations and so may not explain how these relations can undermine programs directed at women. It also does not uncover the types of trade-offs that women are prepared to make for the sake of achieving their ideals of marriage or motherhood.{{sfn|Shifting views...}} Another criticism is that the GAD perspective is theoretically distinct from WID, but in practice, programs seem to have elements of both. Whilst many development agencies are now committed to a gender approach, in practice, the primary institutional perspective remain focused on a WID approach.<ref name="Reeves 2000 33">{{cite book|last=Reeves|first=Hazel|title=Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions|year=2000|___location=Brighton|isbn=1-85864-381-3|page=33}}</ref> Specifically, the language of GAD has been incorporated into WID programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Andrea M.|date=2006-07-20|title=WID and GAD in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Reappraising Gender Planning Approaches in Theory and Practice|journal=Journal of Women, Politics & Policy|volume=28|issue=2|pages=57–83|doi=10.1300/J501v28n02_03|s2cid=144490955|issn=1554-477X}}</ref> There is a slippage in reality where gender mainstreaming is often based in a single normative perspective as synonymous to women.<ref>{{cite book|last=True|first=J|title=Feminist Strategies in Global Governance: Gender Mainstreaming|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|___location=New York|page=37}}</ref>
==Neoliberal approaches==
===Gender and neoliberal development institutions===
Neoliberalism consists of policies that will privatize public industry, deregulate any laws or policies that interfere with the free flow of the market and cut back on all social services. These policies were often introduced to many low-income countries through structural adjustment programs (SAPs) by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).<ref>{{cite book|title=Gender, Development, and Globalization:Economics as if All People Mattered.|last1=Beneria|first1=Lourdes|last2=Berik|first2=Gunseli|last3=Floro|first3=Maria S.|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=978-0-415-53748-3|___location=New York|
Gender mainstreaming
An argument made on the functions behind institutional financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank are that they support capitalist ideals through their means of economic growth of countries globally and their participation in the global economy and capitalist systems. The roles of banks as institutions and the creation of new
=== Gender and
One of the features of development encouraged in neoliberal approaches is outsourcing. Outsourcing is when companies from the western world moves some of their business to another country. The reasons these companies make the decision to move is often because of cheap labor costs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mullins |first1=Lauren Bock |last2=Saldivar |first2=Karina Moreno |title=Research associating gender and government privatization: Lessons from international literature |journal=Wagadu |date=22 December 2015 |volume=14 |pages=169–187 |id={{Gale|A490822009}} {{ProQuest|1786467988}} |ssrn=3194233 |url=http://sites.cortland.edu/wagadu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2016/02/Special-Issue-Volume-14-7.pdf }}</ref> Although outsourcing is about businesses it is directly related to gender because it has greatly affected women. The reason it is related to gender is that women are mainly the people that are being hired for these cheap labor jobs and why they are being hired.<ref name=Nyeck2015>{{cite journal |last1=Nyeck |first1=S. N. |last2=Benjamin |first2=Orly |title=Women, gender and government outsourcing in comparative perspectives |journal=Wagadu |date=22 December 2015 |volume=14 |pages=1–12 |id={{Gale|A490822003}} {{ProQuest|1786468088}} |url=http://sites.cortland.edu/wagadu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2016/02/Special-Issue-Volume-14-1-1.pdf }}</ref>
One example of a popular place for factories to relocate is to China. In China the main people who work in these factories are women, these women move from their home towns to cities far away for the factory jobs. The reasons these women move is to be able to make a wage to take care of not only themselves but their families as well. Oftentimes these women are expected to get these jobs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Houseman |first1=Susan |title=Outsourcing, offshoring and productivity measurement in United States manufacturing |journal=International Labour Review |date=March 2007 |volume=A146 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–80 |doi
Another example of a country the garment industry outsources work to is Bangladesh, which has one of the lowest costs of labor compared to other third world countries (see the ILO data provided in figure 1).<ref>{{cite web |title=Wages and Working Hours in the Textiles, Clothing, Leather and Footwear Industries |url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_dialogue/@sector/documents/publication/wcms_300463.pdf |website=International Labour Organization |publisher=International Labour Office |access-date=November 15, 2019}}</ref>
[[File:ILO Graph of third world countries wages.png|thumb|Figure 1]]
Although the discussions made around outsourcing do not often involve the effects on women, women daily endure constant results from it. Women in countries and areas that may not have been able to work and make their own income now have the opportunity to provide for themselves and their kids.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perraudin |first1=Corinne |last2=Thèvenot |first2=Nadine |last3=Valentin |first3=Julie |title=Avoiding the employment relationship: Outsourcing and labour substitution among French manufacturing firms, 1984–2003 |journal=International Labour Review |date=2013 |volume=152 |issue=3–4 |pages=525–547 |doi=10.1111/j.1564-913X.2013.00192.x }}</ref> Gender is brought to attention because unemployment is sometimes a threat to women. The reason for it being a threat is because without jobs and their own income women may fall victim to discrimination or abuse.<ref name="Pande">{{cite
With the availability of jobs and the seeming benefits comes a concern for the work conditions in these outsourced jobs. Although some women have acquired a job the work conditions may not be safe or ideal.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=FEW's News |title=Written Testimony Of The Federally Employed Women |journal=FEW's News |date=2003 |volume=2}}</ref> As mentioned above the jobs are in extreme demand because of how limited opportunities for employment is in certain regions. This leads to the idea of women being disposable at the workplace.<ref
=== Gender and microfinance ===
Women have been identified by some development institutions as a key to successful development, for example through financial inclusion. Microcredit is giving small loans to people in poverty without collateral. This was first started by [[Muhammad Yunus]], who formed the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.microworld.org/en/about-microworld/about-microcredit|title=Story of the microcredit|website=www.microworld.org|access-date=2018-03-01|archive-date=2022-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006124626/https://www.microworld.org/en/about-microworld/about-microcredit|url-status=dead}}</ref> Studies have
There were numerous case studies done in Tanzania about the correlation of the role of [[Microfinance in Tanzania|SACCoS]] (savings and credit cooperative organization) and the economic development of the country. The research showed that the microfinance policies were not being carried out in the most efficient ways due to exploitation.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Brennan|first=James R.|date=November 2006|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=47|issue=3|pages=389–413|doi=10.1017/S0021853706001794|issn=1469-5138|title=Blood Enemies: Exploitation and Urban Citizenship in the Nationalist Political Thought of Tanzania, 1958–75|s2cid=144117250|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/4155/1/BloodEnemies.pdf}}</ref>
While there are such cases in which women were able to lift themselves out of poverty, there are also cases in which women fell into a [[poverty trap]] as they were unable to repay their loans.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/11/01/500093608/you-asked-we-answer-can-tiny-loans-lift-women-out-of-poverty|title=You Asked, We Answer: Can Microloans Lift Women Out Of Poverty?|work=NPR
Some arguments that microcredit is not effective insist that the structure of the economy, with large informal and agriculture sectors, do not provide a system in which borrowers can be successful. In Nigeria, where the informal economy is approximately 45–60% of economy, women working within it could not attain access to microcredit because of the high demand for loans triggered by high unemployment rates in the formal sector. This study found Nigerian woman are forced into
Although there is debate on how effective microcredit is in alleviating poverty in general, there is an argument that microcredit enables women to participate and fulfill their capabilities in society.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lott|first=Charlotte E.|date=2009-05-01|title=Why Women Matter: the Story of Microcredit |journal=Journal of Law and Commerce|volume=27|issue=2|doi=10.5195/jlc.2009.28|issn=2164-7984|doi-access=free}}</ref> For example, a study conducted in Malayasia showed that their version of microcredit, AIM, had a positive effect on Muslim women's empowerment in terms of allowing them to have more control over family planning and over decisions that were made in the home.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Al-Shami|first1=Sayed Samer Ali|last2=Razali|first2=Muhammad M.|last3=Majid|first3=Izaidin|last4=Rozelan|first4=Ahmed|last5=Rashid|first5=Nurulizwa|date=2016-07-02|title=The effect of microfinance on women's empowerment: Evidence from Malaysia|journal=Asian Journal of Women's Studies|volume=22|issue=3|pages=318–337|doi=10.1080/12259276.2016.1205378|s2cid=156110946|issn=1225-9276}}</ref>
In contrast, out of a study conducted on 205 different MFIs, they concluded that there is still gender discrimination within microfinance institutions themselves and microcredit which impact the existing discrimination within communities as well. In Bangladesh, another outcome seen for some of the Grameen recipients was that they faced domestic abuse as a result of their husbands feeling threatened about women bringing in more income.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2010|title=Supplemental Material for Assessing the Impact of the Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 2000–2008.|journal=Psychology of Men & Masculinity|doi=10.1037/a0018033.supp|issn=1524-9220}}</ref> A study in Uganda also noted that men felt threatened through increased female financial dominance, increasing women's vulnerability at home.<ref>{{cite
Through the
Another example is the Women's Development Business (WDB) in South Africa, a [[Grameen Bank]] microfinance replicator. According to WDB, the goal is to ensure
Diving into another example regarding Microfinance and women from ''Women Entrepreneurship Promotion in Developing Countries: What explains the gender gap in entrepreneurship and how to close it?''is Vossenberg (2013) describes how although there has been an increase in entrepreneurship for women, the gender gap still persists. The author states
As a reaction, a current topic in the feminist literature on economic development is the
Therefore, the critique is that the assumption of economic development through microfinance does not take into account all possible outcomes, especially the ones affecting women.
Line 104 ⟶ 137:
===Gender, financial crises, and neoliberal economic policy===
The [[
There are different views among feminists on whether neoliberal economic policies have more positive or negative impacts on women. In the post-war era, feminist scholars such as Elizabeth Wilson<ref name="Wilson1977">{{cite book |author=Elizabeth Wilson |title= Women and the Welfare State |year=1977 |url= https://www.amazon.com/Women-Welfare-State-Routledge-1977/dp/B00DHPQZPO |publisher=Routledge|isbn= 978-0-422-76060-7 }}</ref>
Therefore, some scholars in the field argue that [[feminism]], especially during its [[second-wave feminism|second wave]], has contributed key ideas to Neoliberalism that, according to these authors, creates new forms of inequality and exploitation.<ref name="Fraser2012">{{cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Nancy |year=2012 |title= Feminism, Capitalism, and the Cunning of History |url= http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/72/50/55/PDF/FMSH-WP-2012-17_Fraser1.pdf |journal=Working Paper |publisher=Fondation Maison des sciences de l'homme
As a reaction to the phenomenon that some forms of feminism are increasingly interwoven with capitalism, many suggestions on how to name these movements have emerged in the feminist literature. Examples are
===Smart economics===
'''Theoretical approaches'''
Advocated chiefly by the [[World Bank]], smart economics is an approach to define gender equality as an integral part of economic development and it aims to spur development through investing more efficiently in women and girls. It stresses that the gap between men and women in [[human capital]], economic opportunities, and voice/agency is a chief obstacle in achieving more efficient development. As an approach, it is a direct descendant of the efficiency approach taken by WID which
The thinking behind smart economics dates back, at least, to the lost decade of the [[Structural adjustment|Structural Adjustment]] Policies (SAPs) in the 1980s.<ref name="Chant and Sweetman (2012)"/> In 1995, World Bank issued its flagship publication on gender matters of the year Enhancing Women's Participation in Economic Development (World Bank 1995). This report marked a critical foundation to the naissance of Smart Economics; in a chapter entitled
Other [[international organizations]], particular [[UN]] families, have so far endorsed the approach of smart economics. Examining the relationship between child well-being and gender equality, for example, [[UNICEF]] also referred to the
'''Criticisms'''
From the mid-2000s, the approach of smart economics and its chief proponent
The World Bank's gender policy aims to eliminate poverty and enhance economic growth by addressing gender disparities and inequalities that hinders development. A critique{{by whom|date=May 2021}} on the World Bank's gender policy is it being
Smart
A wide range of scholars and practitioners has criticized that smart economics rather endorse the current status-quo of gender inequality and keep silence for the demand of institutional reform. Its approach
Sylvia Chant (2008) discredited its approach as
Chant is concerned that
Chant emphasize that
==Alternative Approaches==
Line 139 ⟶ 172:
===Marxism and Neo-Marxism===
The structuralist debate was first triggered by [[Marxist]] and [[socialist feminist]]s. Marxism, particularly through alternative models of [[state socialist]] development practiced in [[China]] and [[Cuba]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Huang|first=Philip C.C.|date=2012-09-17|title=Profit-Making State Firms and China's Development Experience|journal=Modern China|volume=38|issue=6|pages=591–629|doi=10.1177/0097700412455839|s2cid=153846930|issn=0097-7004}}</ref> challenged the dominant liberal approach over time. [[Neo-Marxist]] proponents focused on the role of the [[post-colonial]] state in development in general and also on localized class struggles.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pearce|first=Samir Amin. Transl. by Brian |title=Unequal development : an essay on the social formations of peripheral capitalism|year=1976|publisher=Harvester Pr.|___location=Hassocks|isbn=978-0901759467 |edition=al-Ṭabʻah 4.|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/unequaldevelopme0000amin}}</ref> [[Marxist feminist]]s advanced these criticisms towards liberal approaches and made significant contribution to the contemporary debate.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mies |first1=Maria |last2=Bennholdt-Thomsen |first2=Veronika |last3=Werlhof |first3=Claudia von |date=1988 |title=Women: the last colony |publisher=Zed Books |___location=London |isbn=978-0862324551 |url=https://archive.org/details/womenlastcolony00mies }}</ref>
===Dependency theory===
Dependency theorists opposed that liberal development models, including the attempt to incorporate women into the existing global capitalism, was, in fact, nothing more than the "development of [[underdevelopment]]."<ref>{{cite book|last=Frank |first=Andre Gunder|title=Capitalism and underdevelopment in Latin America : historical studies of Chile and Brazil |url=https://archive.org/details/capitalismunderd00fran|url-access=registration |year=1969|publisher=Monthly Review P. |___location=New York |isbn=978-0853450931|edition=
In the 1980s, there also emerged "a sustained questioning by [[post-structuralist]] critics of the development paradigm as a narrative of progress and as an achievable enterprise."<ref>{{cite book |last=Ghosh |first=Jayati |title=The Women, Gender and Development Reader |publisher=Zed Books |year=2011 |isbn=9781780321387 |editor-last=Visvanathan |editor-first=Nalini |edition=2nd |___location=London |page=29 |chapter=Financial crises and the impact on woman: a historical note |editor-last2=Duggan |editor-first2=Lynn |editor-last3=Wiegersma |editor-first3=Nan |editor-last4=Nisonoff |editor-first4=Laurie}}</ref>
===Basic Needs Approach, Capability Approach, and Ecofeminism===
Within the liberal paradigm of women and development, various criticism have emerged. The [[Basic Needs]] (BN) approach began to pose questions to the focus on growth and income as indicators of development. It was heavily influenced by [[Amartya Sen|Sen]] and Nussbaum's [[capability approach]], which was more gender sensitive than BN and focused on expanding human freedom.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Amartya|title=Development as freedom|year=2001|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|___location=Oxford [u.a.]|isbn=978-0192893307|edition=1st publ. as an Oxford Univ. Press paperback|url=https://archive.org/details/developmentasfre00sena}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-first=Martha|editor-last=Nussbaum|title=The quality of life a study prepared for the World Institute for Development Economics Research (WIDER) of the United Nations University|year=1995|publisher=Clarendon Press|___location=Oxford|isbn=9780198287971|edition=
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{{refend}}
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