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{{Private spaceflight}}
[[SpaceX]] has [[private spaceflight|privately funded]] the development of [[Orbital spaceflight|orbital]] [[spacecraft|launch system]]s that can be [[reusable launch vehicle|reused]] many times, similar to the reusability of [[aircraft]]. SpaceX has developed technologies
The program was announced in 2011. SpaceX first achieved a [[Falcon 9 Flight 20|successful landing and recovery of a first stage]] in December 2015. The [[SES-10|first re-flight of a landed first stage]] occurred in March 2017<ref name=sn20170330/> with the second occurring in June 2017, that one only five months after the maiden flight of the booster.<ref name=sir-20170626 /> The third attempt occurred in October 2017 with the [[SES-11]]/[[EchoStar-105]] mission. Reflights of refurbished first stages then became routine. In May 2021, B1051 became the first booster to launch ten missions.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Sesnic|first1=Trevor|last2=Fletcher|first2=Colin|last3=Kanayama|first3=Lee|date=2021-05-08|title=SpaceX flies historic 10th mission of a Falcon 9 as Starlink constellation expands|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/05/historic-10th-falcon9-reflight/|access-date=2021-05-19|website=NASASpaceFlight.com|language=en-US|archive-date=May 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516121203/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/05/historic-10th-falcon9-reflight/|url-status=live}}</ref>
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The [[reusable launch system]] technology was initially developed for the first stage of [[Falcon 9]].<ref name=sn20141024/> After [[Separation event|stage separation]], the booster flips around (an optional '''boostback burn'''<!-- bolded per [[WP:MOSBOLD]] as a redirect link --> reverses its course), a reentry burn sheds gravity-induced speed to prevent stage overheating as the spacecraft [[atmospheric reentry|reenters the thicker part of the atmosphere]], and a landing burn accomplishes the final low-altitude deceleration and touchdown.
SpaceX planned
{{As of|2023}}, SpaceX is developing the [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]] system to be a fully-reusable two-stage launch vehicle, intended to replace all of its other launch vehicles and spacecraft for satellite delivery and human transport—Falcon 9, Falcon Heavy, and Dragon—and eventually support flights to the Moon and Mars. It could theoretically be used for point-to-point transportation on Earth.<ref name="musk201803journal">{{cite journal|last1=Musk|first1=Elon|date=1 March 2018|title=Making Life Multi-Planetary|journal=New Space|volume=6|issue=1|pages=2–11|bibcode=2018NewSp...6....2M|doi=10.1089/space.2018.29013.emu}}</ref>
{{TOC limit|4}}
== History ==
[[File:SpaceX rockets.svg|thumb|upright=2|right|From left to right, [[Falcon 1]], [[Falcon 9 v1.0]], three versions of [[Falcon 9 v1.1]], three versions of [[Falcon 9 Full Thrust|Falcon 9 v1.2 (Full Thrust)]], three versions of [[Falcon 9 Block 5]], [[Falcon Heavy]], three versions of [[Falcon Heavy Block 5]] and [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]] Block 1. The SpaceX reusable rocket technology is being developed for Falcon 9 v1.2, Falcon Heavy and Starship.]]
SpaceX attempted to land the first stage of the [[Falcon 1#Reusability|Falcon 1 by parachute]], but the stage did not survive atmosphere re-entry. They continued to experiment unsuccessfully with parachutes on the earliest [[Falcon 9]] flights after 2010. SpaceX subsequently switched to developing a [[Retropropulsion|powered descent]] [[VTVL|landing]] system.<ref name=nsf20170330>{{cite news |last=Graham |first=William |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/03/spacex-historic-falcon-9-re-flight-ses-10/ |title=SpaceX conducts historic Falcon 9 re-flight with SES-10 – Lands booster again |work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]] |date=2017-03-30 |access-date=2017-05-27 |quote='The earliest Falcon 9 launches carried parachutes which were to have been used to recover the first stage. However, this was abandoned due to the stage disintegrating during reentry, before the parachutes could be deployed. Instead, SpaceX began to investigate using the stage’s engines to make a powered descent and landing. Alongside this, an improved Falcon 9 vehicle, the Falcon 9 v1.1, was developed.' |archive-date=May 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517125334/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/03/spacex-historic-falcon-9-re-flight-ses-10/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
A description of the reusable launch system was outlined in September 2011. SpaceX said it would attempt to develop powered descent and recovery of both Falcon 9 stages{{mdash}}a fully vertical takeoff, vertical landing ([[VTVL]]) rocket. The company produced an animated video of the first stage returning tail-first for a powered descent and the second stage with a heat shield, reentering head first before rotating for a powered descent.<ref name="wp20110929">{{cite video |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RkvLQdzZRFo |title=SpaceX Chief Details Reusable Rocket |date=September 29, 2011 |language=en-us |access-date=April 9, 2016 |via=Associated Press |work=Washington Post}}</ref><ref name="sdc20110930">{{cite news |url=http://www.space.com/13140-spacex-private-reusable-rocket-elon-musk.html |title=SpaceX Unveils Plan for World's First Fully Reusable Rocket |newspaper=Space.com |last=Wall |first=Mike |date=September 30, 2011 |access-date=October 11, 2011 |archive-date=October 10, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010191516/http://www.space.com/13140-spacex-private-reusable-rocket-elon-musk.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="SpaceX Video from SpaceX. com">{{cite web |url=http://www.spacex.com/assets/video/spacex-rtls-green.mp4 |title=Falcon 9 Return to Launch Site |format=video |work=SpaceX.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011221641/http://www.spacex.com/assets/video/spacex-rtls-green.mp4 |archive-date=October 11, 2011}}</ref><ref name="npc20110929">{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xrVD3tcVWTY |title=National Press Club: The Future of Human Spaceflight |medium=video |work=NPC video repository |date=September 29, 2011 |people=Mark Hamrick, Elon Musk |publisher=National Press Club |quote=@18:15 "It is a very tough engineering problem—and it wasn't something that I thought, wasn't sure it could be solved for a while. But then, just relatively recently, in the last 12 months or so, I've come to the conclusion that it can be solved. And SpaceX is going to try to do it. Now, we could fail. I am not saying we are certain of success here, but we are going to try to do it. And we have a design that, on paper, doing the calculations, doing the simulations, it does work. Now we need to make sure that those simulations and reality agree, because generally when they don't, reality wins. So that's to be determined."}}</ref><!-- ←the original source was http://www.c-span.org/Events/National-Press-Club-The-Future-of-Human-Spaceflight/10737424486/ |title=National Press Club: The Future of Human Spaceflight |work=C-SPAN.org |date=September 29, 2011 --- but that link has gone dead. Found another copy on the NPC video repository on YouTube --> In September 2012, SpaceX began flight tests on a prototype reusable first stage with the suborbital [[
News of the Grasshopper test rocket had become public a few days earlier, when the [[Federal Aviation Administration|US Federal Aviation Administration]] released a [[National Environmental Policy Act|draft Environmental Impact Assessment]] for the SpaceX Test Site in Texas, and the space media had reported it.<ref name="faa20110922">{{cite web |url=http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/media/20110922%20spacex%20grasshopper%20draft%20ea.final.pdf |title=Draft Environmental Assessment for Issuing an Experimental Permit to SpaceX for Operation of the Grasshopper Vehicle at the McGregor Test Site, Texas |publisher=Federal Aviation Administration |date=September 22, 2011 |access-date=November 21, 2013 |archive-date=January 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112212209/http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/media/20110922%20spacex%20grasshopper%20draft%20ea.final.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="satspot20110926" /> In May 2012, SpaceX obtained a set of atmospheric test data for the recovery of the Falcon 9 first stage based on 176 test runs in the [[NASA]] [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] [[wind tunnel]] test facility. The work was contracted out by SpaceX under a reimbursable [[Space Act Agreement]] with NASA.<ref name="sn20120528">{{cite news |url=http://www.spacenews.com/article/nasa-finishes-wind-tunnel-testing-falcon-9-1st-stage |title=NASA Finishes Wind-tunnel Testing of Falcon 9 1st Stage |work=Space News |date=May 28, 2012 |access-date=June 26, 2012 }}</ref>
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In November 2012, CEO [[Elon Musk]] announced plans to build a second, much larger, [[SpaceX super-heavy lift launch vehicle|reusable rocket system]] powered by [[LOX]]/[[liquid methane|methane]] rather than LOX/[[RP-1]] used on Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy. The new system was to be "an evolution of SpaceX's Falcon 9 booster", and SpaceX reiterated their commitment to develop a breakthrough in vertical landing technology.<ref name="sdc20121123">{{cite news |url=http://www.space.com/18596-mars-colony-spacex-elon-musk.html |title=Huge Mars Colony Eyed by SpaceX Founder Elon Musk |work=Space.com |last=Coppinger |first=Rod |date=November 23, 2012 |access-date=November 25, 2012 |quote=much bigger [than Falcon 9], but I don’t think we’re quite ready to state the payload. We’ll speak about that next year. |archive-date=June 28, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628154029/http://www.space.com/18596-mars-colony-spacex-elon-musk.html |url-status=live }}</ref> By the end of 2012, the demonstration test vehicle, Grasshopper, had made three VTVL test flights{{mdash}}including a 29-second hover flight to {{convert|40|m|sp=us}} on December 17, 2012.<ref name="cl20121224">{{cite news |url=http://cosmiclog.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/12/23/16114180-spacex-launches-its-grasshopper-rocket-on-12-story-high-hop-in-texas |title=SpaceX launches its Grasshopper rocket on 12-story-high hop in Texas |work=NBC News{{\}}Cosmic Log |last=Boyle |first=Alan |date=December 24, 2012 |access-date=December 25, 2012 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303194358/http://cosmiclog.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/12/23/16114180-spacex-launches-its-grasshopper-rocket-on-12-story-high-hop-in-texas |url-status=live }}</ref> In early March 2013, SpaceX successfully tested Grasshopper for a fourth time when it flew to an altitude of over {{convert|80|m|sp=us}}.<ref name=nsj20130309/>
In March 2013, SpaceX announced that it would instrument and equip subsequent Falcon 9 first-stages as controlled descent test vehicles, with plans for over-water propulsively decelerated simulated landings beginning in 2013, with the intent to return the vehicle to the launch site for a powered landing{{mdash}}possibly as early as mid-2014.<ref name="pa20130328">{{cite news |url=http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/03/28/dragon-post-mission-press-conference-notes/ |title=Dragon Post-Mission Press Conference Notes |work=Parabolic Arc |last=Messier |first=Doug |date=March 28, 2013 |access-date=March 30, 2013 |quote=Q. What is strategy on booster recover? Musk: Initial recovery test will be a water landing. First stage continue in ballistic arc and execute a velocity reduction burn before it enters atmosphere to lessen impact. Right before splashdown, will light up the engine again. Emphasizes that we don’t expect success in the first several attempts. Hopefully next year with more experience and data, we should be able to return the first stage to the launch site and do a propulsion landing on land using legs. Q. Is there a flight identified for return to launch site of the booster? Musk: No. Will probably be the middle of next year. |archive-date=May 31, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531230305/http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/03/28/dragon-post-mission-press-conference-notes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The April 2013 draft [[Environmental impact statement|Environmental Impact Statement]] for the proposed [[SpaceX South Texas Launch Site]] includes specific accommodations for return of the Falcon 9 first-stage boosters to the launch site.<ref name="faa201304v1">{{cite report|url=http://1.usa.gov/YtxBzo |title=Draft Environmental Impact Statement: SpaceX Texas Launch Site |publisher=Federal Aviation Administration{{\}}Office of Commercial Space Transportation |last=Nield |first=George C. |volume=1 |date=April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207085028/http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/environmental/nepa_docs/review/documents_progress/spacex_texas_launch_site_environmental_impact_statement/media/SpaceX_Texas_Launch_Site_Draft_EIS_V1.pdf |archive-date=December 7, 2013 }}</ref> Elon Musk first publicly referred to the reusable Falcon 9 as the
In September 2013, SpaceX successfully relit three engines of a spent booster on an orbital launch, and the booster re-entered the atmosphere at hypersonic speed without burning up.<ref name=fp20131209/> With the data collected from the first flight test of a booster-controlled descent from high altitude, coupled with the technological advancements made on the Grasshopper low-altitude landing demonstrator, SpaceX announced it believed it was ready to test a full land-recovery of a booster stage.<ref name=pm20130930/> Based on the positive results from the first high-altitude flight test, SpaceX advanced the expected date of a test from mid-2014 to early 2015{{clarify|date=September 2016}}, with the intention of doing so on the [[SpaceX CRS-3|next Space Station cargo resupply flight]] pending regulatory approvals.<ref name="bbc20130930" /><ref name="pa20130930" /> That flight took place on April 18, 2014.<ref name=aw20140428a>{{cite news |last=Norris |first=Guy |title=SpaceX Plans For Multiple Reusable Booster Tests |url=http://aviationweek.com/space/spacex-plans-multiple-reusable-booster-tests |access-date=May 17, 2014 |newspaper=Aviation Week |date=April 28, 2014 |quote=The April 17 F9R Dev 1 flight, which lasted under 1 min., was the first vertical landing test of a production-representative recoverable Falcon 9 v1.1 first stage, while the April 18 cargo flight to the ISS was the first opportunity for SpaceX to evaluate the design of foldable landing legs and upgraded thrusters that control the stage during its initial descent. |archive-date=April 26, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426201818/http://aviationweek.com/space/spacex-plans-multiple-reusable-booster-tests |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ut20140419">{{cite news |url=http://www.universetoday.com/111377/spacex-makes-strides-towards-1st-stage-falcon-rocket-recovery-during-space-station-launch/ |title=SpaceX Makes Strides Towards 1st Stage Falcon Rocket Recovery during Space Station Launch |work=Universe Today |last=Kremer |first=Ken |date=April 19, 2014 |access-date=April 19, 2014 |archive-date=April 19, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419222428/http://www.universetoday.com/111377/spacex-makes-strides-towards-1st-stage-falcon-rocket-recovery-during-space-station-launch/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
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* New [[Spacecraft attitude control|attitude control]] technology for the booster to bring the descending [[rocket body]] through the atmosphere in a manner conducive both to non-destructive return and [[Aerodynamic control surfaces|sufficient aerodynamic control]] such that the terminal phase of the [[VTVL|landing]] is possible.<ref name="pa20140114vid">
{{cite video |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XtNgWK4mm0M |title=Singapore Satellite Industry Forum 2013 – Opening Keynote |date=June 17, 2013 |language=en |access-date=April 9, 2016 |people=Gwynne Shotwell}}</ref> This includes sufficient roll [[Control system|control authority]] to keep the rocket from spinning excessively as occurred on the [[Falcon 9 Flight 6#Post-mission launch vehicle testing|first high-altitude flight test]] in September 2013, where the roll rate exceeded the capabilities of the booster [[attitude control system]] (ACS) and the fuel in the tanks "centrifuged" to the side of the tank shutting down the single engine involved in the low-altitude deceleration maneuver.<ref name="pa20130930" /><ref name="tss20140321b">{{cite AV media |url=http://archived.thespaceshow.com/shows/2212-BWB-2014-03-21.mp3 |title=Broadcast 2212: Special Edition, interview with Gwynne Shotwell |date=March 21, 2014 |medium=audio file |language=en |publisher=The Space Show |time=51;50–52;55 |access-date=March 22, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322013556/http://archived.thespaceshow.com/shows/2212-BWB-2014-03-21.mp3 |archive-date=March 22, 2014 |url-status=dead |format=mp3 |id=2212 |people=Gwynne Shotwell}}</ref> The technology needs to handle the transition from the vacuum of space at [[hypersonic]] conditions, decelerating to [[supersonic]] velocities and passing through [[Transonic buffet|transonic]] [[Buffet (turbulence)|buffet]], before relighting one of the main-stage engines at [[terminal velocity]].<ref name=pm20130930/>
* Hypersonic [[grid fin]]s were added to the booster test vehicle design beginning on the [[Falcon 9 Flight 14|fifth ocean controlled-descent test flight]] in 2014 in order to enable precision landing. Arranged in an "X" configuration, the grid fins control the descending rocket's [[lift vector]] once the vehicle has returned to the atmosphere to enable a much more precise [[Landing ellipse|landing ___location]].<ref name=sx20141216>{{cite
[[File:Falcon 9 with CRS-3 Dragon in SLC-40 hangar (16855338881).jpg|thumb|left|Falcon 9 v1.1 with landing legs attached, in stowed position as the rocket is prepared for launch in its hangar]]
* The [[Rocket engine throttling|rocket engine needs to be throttleable]] to achieve zero velocity at the same time the rocket reaches the ground. Even the lowest possible thrust of a single [[Merlin 1D]] engine exceeds the weight of the nearly empty Falcon 9 booster core, therefore the rocket cannot hover.<ref name=fg20130321>{{cite news |last=Rosenberg |first=Zach |title=SpaceX Merlin 1D qualified for flight |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/spacex-merlin-1d-qualified-for-flight-383738/ |access-date=March 18, 2014 |newspaper=Flightglobal |date=March 21, 2013 |archive-date=October 30, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030135922/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/spacex-merlin-1d-qualified-for-flight-383738/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=slr20140312>{{cite web |title=SpaceX Falcon 9 v1.1 Data Sheet |url=http://www.spacelaunchreport.com/falcon9v1-1.html |publisher=Space Launch Report |access-date=March 18, 2014 |date=March 12, 2014 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111220657/https://www.spacelaunchreport.com/falcon9v1-1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=blackmore2016/>
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* A large [[floating landing platform]] for launches where the first stage does not have sufficient fuel to return to the launch site. As of 2022, SpaceX built three [[autonomous spaceport drone ship]]s, one operating the West coast and two on the East coast of the United States.
* A [[thermal protection system]] to avoid damage to the first stage when re-entering the atmosphere.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/05/11/spacex-debuts-an-improved-human-rated-model-of-the-falcon-9-rocket/|title=SpaceX debuts new model of the Falcon 9 rocket designed for astronauts|date=11 May 2018|access-date=August 23, 2019|archive-date=April 1, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401055341/https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/05/11/spacex-debuts-an-improved-human-rated-model-of-the-falcon-9-rocket/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Lightweight, deployable [[Launch vehicle landing gear|landing gear]] for the booster stage.<ref name="satspot20110926" /><ref name=blackmore2016>{{cite journal |title=Autonomous Precision Landing of Space Rockets |journal=The Bridge, National Academy of Engineering |date=Winter 2016 |last=Blackmore |first=Lars |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=15–20 |issn=0737-6278 |url=http://web.mit.edu/larsb/www/nae_bridge_2016.pdf |access-date=January 15, 2017 |archive-date=January 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110121559/http://web.mit.edu/larsb/www/nae_bridge_2016.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In May 2013, the design was shown to be a nested, telescoping piston on an A-frame. The total span of the four [[carbon fiber]]/[[aluminum]] extensible landing legs<ref name="sxn20130729legs">{{cite
== Economics of rocket reuse ==
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{{cite news |last=Belfiore |first=Michael |title=SpaceX Brings a Booster Safely Back to Earth |url=http://www.technologyreview.com/news/526806/spacex-brings-a-booster-safely-back-to-earth/ |access-date=April 25, 2014 |newspaper=MIT Technology Review |date=April 22, 2014}}</ref><ref name="bi20141125">{{cite news |last1=Orwig |first1=Jessica |date=November 25, 2014 |title=Elon Musk Just Unveiled A Game-Changing Ocean Landing Pad For His Reusable Rockets |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-rockets-that-land-at-sea-2014-11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026092835/http://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-rockets-that-land-at-sea-2014-11 |archive-date=October 26, 2017 |access-date=December 11, 2014 |work=Business Insider |quote=''The first successful "soft landing" of a Falcon 9 rocket happened in April of this year.''}}</ref>
[[File:Falcon 9 First Stage Reusability Graphic.jpg|thumb|upright=
Space industry analyst Ajay Kothari has noted that SpaceX reusable technology could do for [[space transport]] "what jet engines did for air transportation sixty years ago when people never imagined that more than 500 million passengers would travel by airplanes every year and that the cost could be reduced to the level it is—all because of passenger volume and reliable reusability."<ref name=tsr20140414>{{cite news |last=Kothari |first=Ajay P. |title=Robust and reusable? |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2490/1 |access-date=April 14, 2014 |newspaper=The Space Review |date=April 14, 2014 |archive-date=April 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415115822/http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2490/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> SpaceX said in January 2014 that if they are successful in developing the reusable technology, launch prices of around {{USD|5 to 7 million}} for a reusable Falcon 9 were possible,<ref name=ps20140114>{{cite news |last=Messier |first=Doug |title=Shotwell: Reusable Falcon 9 Would Cost $5 to $7 Million Per Launch |url=http://www.parabolicarc.com/2014/01/14/shotwell/ |access-date=January 15, 2014 |newspaper=Parabolic Arc |date=January 14, 2014 |archive-date=February 16, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216044345/http://www.parabolicarc.com/2014/01/14/shotwell/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and following the successful first stage recovery in December 2015, Musk said that "the potential cost reduction over the long term is probably in excess of a factor of 100."<ref name=cbs20151222/>
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== Falcon 9 reusability development ==
In 2013 SpaceX was testing reusable technologies both for its [[Booster (rocketry)|first-stage booster]] launch vehicle designs (with three test vehicles: [[
SpaceX has publicly disclosed a multi-element, incremental test program for booster stages that includes four aspects:
* low-altitude (less than {{convert|760|m|ft|-2|disp=x|/|abbr=on}}<ref name="faa20110922" /><ref name=wt20130508>{{cite news |last=Abbott |first=Joseph |title=SpaceX's Grasshopper leaping to NM spaceport |url=http://www.wacotrib.com/news/business/spacex-s-grasshopper-leaping-to-nm-spaceport/article_de2126cd-d6ec-563b-b84b-532641e709e3.html |access-date=October 25, 2013 |newspaper=Waco Tribune |date=May 8, 2013 |archive-date=August 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805174829/https://wacotrib.com/news/business/spacex-s-grasshopper-leaping-to-nm-spaceport/article_de2126cd-d6ec-563b-b84b-532641e709e3.html |url-status=live }}</ref>), low-velocity testing of its single-engine [[
* low-altitude (less than {{convert|3000|m|ft|-2|disp=x|/|abbr=on}}), low-velocity testing of a much larger, second-generation, three-engine test vehicle called [[F9R Dev1]]. The second generation vehicle includes extensible landing legs and will be tested at the Texas test site<ref name=tsr20140505>{{cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |title=Following up: reusability, B612, satellite servicing |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2505/1 |access-date=May 6, 2014 |newspaper=The Space Review |date=May 5, 2014 |archive-date=May 6, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506133336/http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2505/1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* high-altitude, mid-velocity testing was planned but cancelled in favor of [[Falcon 9 first-stage landing tests|post-mission re-entry tests of first-stage boosters]]. It would have used F9R Dev2 at a SpaceX leased facility at [[Spaceport America]] in [[New Mexico]].
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[[File:SpaceX Grasshopper rocket midflight.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Grasshopper rocket, in 2013, performing a 325 meter flight followed by a soft propulsive landing in an attempt to develop technologies for a reusable launch vehicle]]
SpaceX used a set of experimental technology-demonstrator, [[suborbital]] [[Reusable launch system|reusable launch vehicles]] (RLV) to begin [[flight testing]] their reusable booster technologies in 2012. Two versions of the prototype reusable test rockets were built—the {{convert|106|ft|adj=on}} tall ''Grasshopper'' (formerly designated as ''Grasshopper v1.0'') and the {{convert|160|ft|adj=on}} tall ''Falcon 9 Reusable Development Vehicle'', or ''F9R Dev1''—formerly known as ''Grasshopper v1.1''<ref name=nsf20140422/>—as well as a [[space capsule|capsule prototype]] for testing propulsive landings of the [[SpaceX Dragon 2|Dragon]] crew and cargo capsule for the Falcon 9—''DragonFly''.<ref name=nsf20140422/> Grasshopper was built in 2011–2012 for low-altitude, low-velocity hover testing that began in September 2012 and concluded in October 2013 after eight test flights.<ref name="faa20110922" /><ref name="satspot20110926" /><ref name=nsf20140422/> The second prototype vehicle design, F9R Dev1, was built on the much larger [[Falcon 9 v1.1]] booster stage which was used to further extend the low-altitude flight testing [[flight envelope|envelope]] on a vehicle that better matched the actual flight hardware. It made five test flights in 2014.<ref name=nsf20140422/><ref name="msnbc20110927">{{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/44692930/ |title=A rocket that lifts off—and lands—on launch pad |work=NBC News |last=Klotz |first=Irene |date=September 27, 2011 |access-date=November 23, 2011 |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203023523/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/44692930/ |url-status=
SpaceX indicated in November 2018 that they considered testing a heavily modified Falcon 9 second stage that would look like a "mini-[[SpaceX Starship design history#Big Falcon Rocket|BFR]] Ship" and be used for [[atmospheric reentry]] [[flight testing|testing]] of a number of technologies needed for the [[Starship test flight rocket|full-scale spaceship]], including an ultra-light [[heat shield]] and high-[[Mach number|Mach]] control surfaces,<ref name="sn20181107">
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==== Grasshopper ====
{{main|SpaceX Grasshopper{{!}}Grasshopper (rocket)}}
Grasshopper, the company's first [[VTVL]] test vehicle, consisted of a [[Falcon 9 v1.0]] first-stage tank, a single [[Merlin 1D|Merlin-1D]] engine, and four permanently attached steel landing legs. It stood {{convert|106|ft}} tall.<ref name="satspot20110926">{{cite news |url=http://satellite.tmcnet.com/topics/satellite/articles/222324-spacex-plans-test-reusable-suborbital-vtvl-rocket-texas.htm |title=SpaceX Plans to Test Reusable Suborbital VTVL Rocket in Texas |newspaper=Satellite Spotlight |last=Mohney |first=Doug |date=September 26, 2011 |access-date=November 21, 2013 |archive-date=August 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804024136/http://satellite.tmcnet.com/topics/satellite/articles/222324-spacex-plans-test-reusable-suborbital-vtvl-rocket-texas.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> SpaceX built a {{Convert|0.5|acre|ha|adj=on}} concrete launch facility at its Rocket Development and Test Facility in [[McGregor, Texas]] to support the Grasshopper flight test program.<ref name="sfn20120709">{{cite news |url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1207/10grasshopper/ |title=Reusable rocket prototype almost ready for first liftoff |newspaper=Spaceflight Now |first=Stephen |last=Clark |date=July 9, 2012 |access-date=July 13, 2012 |quote=SpaceX has constructed a half-acre concrete launch facility in McGregor, and the Grasshopper rocket is already standing on the pad, outfitted with four insect-like silver landing legs. |archive-date=May 21, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521132738/http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1207/10grasshopper/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
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The DragonFly test vehicle is powered by eight [[SuperDraco]] engines, arranged in a redundant pattern to support [[fault-tolerance]] in the propulsion system design.<ref name=wt20140522/> SuperDracos use a [[storable propellant]] mixture of [[monomethyl hydrazine]] (MMH) [[fuel]] and [[nitrogen tetroxide]] [[oxidizer]] (NTO), the same propellants used in the smaller [[Draco (rocket engine family)|Draco]] thrusters used for [[Spacecraft attitude control|attitude control]] and [[Reaction control system|maneuvering]] on the first-generation [[Dragon spacecraft]].<ref name=faa201311/> While SuperDraco engines are capable of {{convert|16400|lbf|N|order=flip}} of thrust, during use on the DragonFly flight test vehicle, each will be [[Rocket engine throttling|throttled]] to less than {{convert|15325|lbf|N|order=flip}} to maintain vehicle stability.<ref name=faa201311/>
A test flight program of thirty flights was proposed in 2013–2014, including two ''propulsive assist'' (parachutes plus thrusters) and two ''propulsive landing'' (no parachutes) on flights dropped from a helicopter at an altitude of approximately {{convert|10000|ft|m|sp=us}}. The other 26 test flights were projected to take off from a [[launch pad]]: eight to be ''propulsive assist hops'' (landing with parachutes plus thrusters) and 18 to be ''full propulsive hops'', similar to the [[
=== Falcon 9 booster post-mission flight tests ===
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This second flight test took place during the April 2014 Dragon flight to the ISS. SpaceX attached [[Launch vehicle landing gear|landing legs]] to the first stage, decelerated it over the ocean and attempted a simulated landing over the water, following the ignition of the second stage on the [[SpaceX CRS-3|third cargo resupply mission]] contracted to NASA. The first stage was successfully slowed enough for a soft landing over the Atlantic Ocean.<ref name="ut20140419" /> SpaceX announced in February 2014 the intent to continue the tests to land the first-stage booster in the ocean until precision control from hypersonic through subsonic regimes had been proven.<ref name=dn20140224>{{cite news |last=Klotz |first=Irene |title=SpaceX Falcon Rocket to Test Landing Legs |url=http://news.discovery.com/space/private-spaceflight/spacex-falcon-rocket-to-test-precision-landing-legs-140224.htm |access-date=February 25, 2014 |newspaper=Discovery News |date=February 24, 2014 |archive-date=March 2, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302123926/http://news.discovery.com/space/private-spaceflight/spacex-falcon-rocket-to-test-precision-landing-legs-140224.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Five additional controlled-descent tests were conducted in the remainder of 2014 through April 2015, including two attempts to land on a [[floating landing platform]]—a SpaceX-built [[Autonomous Spaceport Drone Ship]]—on the [[Atlantic Ocean]] east of the launch site, both of which brought the vehicle to the landing platform, but neither of which resulted in a successful landing.
==== First landing on ground pad ====
[[File:ORBCOMM-2_First-Stage_Landing_(23271687254).jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Falcon 9 Flight 20's first stage landing viewed from a helicopter, December 22, 2015]]
During the [[SpaceX CRS-7|2015 launch hiatus]], SpaceX requested regulatory approval from the [[FAA]] to attempt returning their [[Falcon 9 Flight 20|next flight]] to [[CCAFS|Cape Canaveral]] instead of targeting a floating platform in the ocean. The goal was to [[VTVL|land the booster vertically]] at the leased ''[[Landing Zone 1]]'' facility—the former [[Launch Complex 13]] where SpaceX had recently built a large rocket landing pad.<ref name=ft201511201>{{cite news |last1=Dean |first1=James |title=SpacexSpaceX wants to land next booster at Cape Canaveral |url=http://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/spacex/2015/12/01/spacex-wants-land-next-booster-cape-canaveral/76576142/ |access-date=December 2, 2015 |work=Florida Today |date=December 1, 2015 |archive-date=December 10, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210054303/http://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/spacex/2015/12/01/spacex-wants-land-next-booster-cape-canaveral/76576142/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The FAA approved the safety plan for the ground landing on December 18, 2015.<ref name="os20151220">{{cite news |date=December 20, 2015 |title=SpaceX aims for Sunday launch and ground landing |url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/space/go-for-launch/os-spacex-engine-testing-sunday-launch-20151218-post.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221215241/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/space/go-for-launch/os-spacex-engine-testing-sunday-launch-20151218-post.html |archive-date=December 21, 2015 |access-date=December 20, 2015 |work=Orlando Sentinel |___location=Orlando, Florida}}</ref> The first stage landed successfully on target at 20:38 local time on December 21 (01:38 UTC on December 22).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/12/21/10640306/spacex-elon-musk-rocket-landing-success |title=SpaceX successfully landed its Falcon 9 rocket after launching it to space |work=[[The Verge]] |first=Loren |last=Grush |date=December 21, 2015 |access-date=April 9, 2016 |archive-date=June 28, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628014841/https://www.theverge.com/2015/12/21/10640306/spacex-elon-musk-rocket-landing-success |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=nsf20151231/>
First stage booster ''[[B1019]]'' never flew again after the flight.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/12/21/10642028/spacex-falcon-9-landing-elon-musk-wont-fly |title=SpaceX's 'reusable' Falcon 9 rocket won't fly again, Elon Musk says |work=[[The Verge]] |first=Sean |last=O'Kane |date=December 21, 2015 |access-date=December 23, 2015 |archive-date=December 23, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223012030/http://www.theverge.com/2015/12/21/10642028/spacex-falcon-9-landing-elon-musk-wont-fly |url-status=live }}</ref> Rather, the rocket was moved a few miles north to the SpaceX hangar facilities at [[Launch pad 39A]], was refurbished by SpaceX at the adjacent [[Kennedy Space Center]], where it was inspected before being used on January 15, 2016, to conduct a [[static fire]] test on its original launchpad, [[Launch Complex 40]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=January 16, 2016 |title=SpaceX Test Fires Recovered Falcon 9 Booster in Major Step To Reusable Rockets |url=http://www.universetoday.com/126837/spacex-test-fires-recovered-falcon-9-booster-major-step-reusable-rockets/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202083025/http://www.universetoday.com/126837/spacex-test-fires-recovered-falcon-9-booster-major-step-reusable-rockets/ |archive-date=December 2, 2016 |access-date=January 28, 2017 |newspaper=Universe Today |language=en-US}}</ref> This test aimed to assess the health of the recovered booster and the capability of this rocket design to fly repeatedly in the future.<ref name=f20-static-fire>{{cite web |url=http://spaceflight101.com/returned-falcon-9-booster-fires-up-for-static-fire-test/ |work=Spaceflight 101 |title=Returned falcon 9 booster fires up for static fire test |date=January 15, 2016 |access-date=January 18, 2016 |archive-date=April 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422191153/http://spaceflight101.com/returned-falcon-9-booster-fires-up-for-static-fire-test/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=nsf20151231/> The tests delivered good overall results except for one of the outer engines experiencing thrust fluctuations.<ref name=f20-static-fire /> Elon Musk reported that this may have been due to debris ingestion.<ref>{{cite news |title=SpaceX Tests Recovered Falcon 9 Stage and Prepares for Next Launch |url=http://spacenews.com/spacex-tests-recovered-falcon-9-stage-and-prepares-for-next-launch/ |date=January 15, 2016 |access-date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> The booster was then retired to the SpaceX facility in Hawthorne, California.
==== Landing attempts on drone ships ====
[[File:First stage of Jason-3 rocket (24423604506).jpg|thumb|First stage of [[Falcon 9 Flight 21]] descending over the floating landing platform, January 17, 2016, immediately prior to a soft touchdown followed by [[deflagration]] of the rocket after a landing leg failed to latch, causing the rocket to tip over.]][[Falcon 9 Flight 21]] launched the [[Jason-3]] satellite on January 17, 2016, and attempted to land on the [[autonomous spaceport drone ship|floating platform]] ''Just Read the Instructions'',<ref name=nbc20160107>{{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/innovation/spacex-plans-drone-ship-rocket-landing-jan-17-launch-n492471 |title=SpaceX Plans Drone Ship Rocket Landing for Jan. 17 Launch |publisher=[[NBC News]] |first=Devin |last=Coldewey |date=January 7, 2016 |access-date=January 8, 2016 |archive-date=December 1, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201134820/http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/innovation/spacex-plans-drone-ship-rocket-landing-jan-17-launch-n492471 |url-status=live }}</ref> located for the first time about {{convert|200|mi|km}} out in the [[Pacific Ocean]].<!-- press conference, Hans Koenigsmann speaking for SpaceX: they are not attempting the landing on the land landing site at VAFB SLC4W because they have not yet received approval from the regulatory authorities; will find a secondary source before adding to the article prose... --><!-- HK: they may try to give video coverage of the landing, but unsure they can do it from over the horizon, satellite links, etc. --> Approximately 9 minutes into the flight, the live video feed from the drone ship went down due to the loss of its lock on the uplink satellite. The vehicle landed smoothly onto the vessel but one of the four landing legs failed to lock properly, reportedly due to ice from the heavy pre-launch [[fog]] preventing a lockout [[collet]] from latching.<ref name=sfn20160118>{{cite web |title=SpaceX narrowly misses booster landing at sea |work=Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/01/18/spacex-narrowly-misses-booster-landing-at-sea/ |date=January 18, 2016 |access-date=January 18, 2016 |first=Stephen |last=Clark |archive-date=January 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160122203126/http://spaceflightnow.com/2016/01/18/spacex-narrowly-misses-booster-landing-at-sea/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Consequently the booster fell over shortly after touchdown and was destroyed in a [[deflagration]] upon impact with the pad.<ref name=gw20160117>{{cite news |last=Boyle |first=Alan |url=http://www.geekwire.com/2016/spacex-launches-jason-3-satellite-then-tries-landing-falcon-9-rocket-at-sea/ |title=SpaceX rocket launches satellite, but tips over during sea landing attempt |work=GeekWire |date=January 17, 2016 |access-date=January 18, 2016 |archive-date=January 30, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130022126/http://www.geekwire.com/2016/spacex-launches-jason-3-satellite-then-tries-landing-falcon-9-rocket-at-sea/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=rud>{{cite web |url=https://www.instagram.com/p/BAqirNbwEc0/ |title=Flight 21 landing and breaking a leg |work=Instagram |first=Elon |last=Musk |author-link=Elon Musk |date=January 17, 2016 |access-date=June 5, 2016 |archive-date=December 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211231212/https://www.instagram.com/p/BAqirNbwEc0/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[Falcon 9 Flight 22|Flight 22]] was carrying a heavy payload of {{convert|5271|kg|sigfig=2}} to [[geostationary transfer orbit]] (GTO). This was heavier than the previously advertised maximum lift capacity to GTO being made possible by going slightly [[subsynchronous orbit|subsynchronous]]. Following delays caused by failure of [[Falcon 9 Flight 19|Flight 19]], SpaceX agreed to provide extra thrust to the [[SES-9]] satellite to take it [[supersynchronous orbit|supersynchronous]].<ref name="sfn20160224">{{cite news |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=February 24, 2016 |title=Falcon 9 rocket to give SES 9 telecom satellite an extra boost |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/2016/02/24/falcon-9-rocket-to-give-ses-9-telecom-satellite-an-extra-boost/ |
==== First landings at sea ====
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{{As of|2018|08|06}}, SpaceX had [[List of Falcon 9 first-stage boosters|recovered 21 first-stage boosters from previous missions]], of which six were recovered twice, yielding a total 27 landings. In 2017, SpaceX flew a total of 5 missions out of 20 with re-used boosters ({{percent|5|20}}). In total, 14 boosters have been re-flown {{as of|August 2018|lc=y}}.
On July 28, 2016, the first stage from the [[JCSAT-2B]] mission was successfully test-fired for a full duration at the SpaceX McGregor facility.<ref>{{cite video |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SZQY902xQcw |title=Landed Falcon 9 First Stage Test Firing |publisher=SpaceX |date=July 28, 2016}}</ref> The first reuse attempt occurred on 30 March 2017<ref name="SpaceflightNowSchedule">{{Cite web
SpaceX spent four months refurbishing the first booster to be re-used, [[B1021]], and launched it again after approximately one year.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://spaceflightnow.com/2017/03/27/hotfire-test-completed-ahead-of-milestone-falcon-9-launch-thursday/ |work= Spaceflight Now |title= Hotfire test completed ahead of milestone Falcon 9 launch Thursday |first= Stephen |last= Clark |date= 2017-03-27 |access-date= 2017-04-01 |archive-date= March 30, 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170330013549/https://spaceflightnow.com/2017/03/27/hotfire-test-completed-ahead-of-milestone-falcon-9-launch-thursday/ |url-status= live }}</ref> The second booster to be flown again, [[B1029]], was refurbished in "only a couple of months"<ref name=sir-20170626 /> and re-launched after five months.<ref name=nsf-20170623 /> Elon Musk has stated a goal to turn around a first stage within 24 hours.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/31/spacex-makes-history-successfully-launching-first-recycled-rocket/ |newspaper= [[The Daily Telegraph]] |agency= [[Reuters]] |title= SpaceX makes history by successfully launching first recycled rocket booster |date= 2017-03-31 |access-date= 2017-04-01 |archive-date= February 11, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180211144953/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/31/spacex-makes-history-successfully-launching-first-recycled-rocket/ |url-status= live }}</ref> Musk remains convinced that this long-term goal can be met by SpaceX
Boosters [[B1019]] and [[B1021]] were retired and put on display.{{when|date=August 2016}} [[B1029]] was also retired after the [[BulgariaSat-1]] mission. B1023, B1025, B1031 and B1035 were recovered a second time, while B1032 and B1036 were deliberately sunk at sea after a soft ocean touchdown.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SpaceX Booster Flight History
By mid-2019, having reflown any single booster only three times to date, SpaceX indicated that they plan to use a single booster at least five times by the end of 2019.<ref name=sn20190628>{{cite news |last=Henry |first=Caleb |url=https://spacenews.com/spacex-targets-2021-commercial-starship-launch/ |title=SpaceX targets 2021 commercial Starship launch |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=28 June 2019 |access-date=29 June 2019 |archive-date=August 28, 2019 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20190828053242/https://spacenews.com/spacex%2Dtargets%2D2021%2Dcommercial%2Dstarship%2Dlaunch/ |url-status=live }}</ref> No booster achieved this timeline, but [[Falcon 9 booster B1048|B1048]] flew four times and two more ([[Falcon 9 booster B1046|B1046]] and [[Falcon 9 booster B1049|B1049]]) made a fourth flight in January 2020. In March 2020, SpaceX first flew a booster ([[Falcon 9 booster B1048|B1048]]) for the fifth time.<ref>{{Cite web |
[[File:Falcon Heavy Side Boosters landing on LZ1 and LZ2 - 2018 (25254688767).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Falcon Heavy Side Boosters landing on LZ1 and LZ2 in 2018]]
====Falcon Heavy reusability====
The [[Falcon Heavy test flight]] had no contracted customer, and in order to limit the cost on such a
==== Block 5 boosters ====
{{main|Falcon 9 Block 5}}
With a streak of 19 successful recovery attempts of the first stage from 2016 through to early 2018, SpaceX has focused on rapid reusability of first stage boosters. Block 3 and Block 4 proved economically feasible to be flown twice, as 11 such boosters have been reflown in 2017 and 2018. [[Falcon 9 Full Thrust Block 5|Block 5]] has been designed with multiple reuses in mind, up to 10 reuses with minimal inspection and up to 100 uses with refurbishment.<ref>
=== Fairing reuse ===
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Payload fairings have traditionally been [[Expendable payload fairing|expendable]], where they have either burned up in the atmosphere or were destroyed upon impacting the ocean. As early as mid-2015, Musk hinted that SpaceX might be working on fairing reusability, following the discovery of wreckage of an unidentified Falcon 9 launch vehicle section off the coast of [[The Bahamas]], and was subsequently confirmed by SpaceX to be a component of a payload fairing that had washed ashore.<ref name=sn20150601>
{{cite web |last1=Leone|first1=Dan |title=Beachcomber Finds SpaceX Rocket Wreckage in Bahamas |url=http://spacenews.com/beachcomber-finds-spacex-rocket-wreckage-in-bahamas/ |work=[[SpaceNews]] |access-date=8 March 2018 |date=1 June 2015}}</ref> By April 2016, SpaceX had publicly announced Falcon 9 fairing recovery as an objective.<ref name=verge20170330/> The cost of the fairing is about $6 million per launch, which accounts for approximately ten percent of the overall launch costs.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Stephen |title=New photos illustrate progress in SpaceX's fairing recovery attempts – Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/06/01/new-photos-illustrate-progress-in-spacexs-fairing-recovery-attempts/ |website=spaceflightnow.com |publisher=Pole Star Publications Ltd |access-date=7 August 2018 |date=June 1, 2018 |archive-date=June 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616154300/https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/06/01/new-photos-illustrate-progress-in-spacexs-fairing-recovery-attempts/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Musk said in 2017: "Imagine if you had $6 million in cash in a pallet flying through the air, and it was going to smash into the ocean. Would you try to recover that? Yes, yes you would."<ref name=sn20210526/>▼
▲By April 2016, SpaceX had publicly announced Falcon 9 fairing recovery as an objective.<ref name=verge20170330/> The cost of the fairing is about $6 million per launch, which accounts for approximately ten percent of the overall launch costs.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Stephen |title=New photos illustrate progress in SpaceX's fairing recovery attempts – Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/06/01/new-photos-illustrate-progress-in-spacexs-fairing-recovery-attempts/ |website=spaceflightnow.com |publisher=Pole Star Publications Ltd |access-date=7 August 2018 |date=June 1, 2018 |archive-date=June 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616154300/https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/06/01/new-photos-illustrate-progress-in-spacexs-fairing-recovery-attempts/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Musk said in 2017: "Imagine if you had $6 million in cash in a pallet flying through the air, and it was going to smash into the ocean. Would you try to recover that? Yes, yes you would."<ref name=sn20210526/>
In March 2017, as part of the [[SES-10]] mission, SpaceX for the first time performed a controlled landing of the payload fairing and successfully recovered a fairing half, aided by [[Attitude control thruster|attitude-control thrusters]] and a [[steerable parachute]], helping it glide towards a gentle touchdown on water.<ref name=sn20170330/><ref name=verge20170330/> The company announced intent to land the fairings eventually on a dry flexible structure, jokingly described by Musk as a "floating bouncy-castle", with the aim of full fairing reuse.<ref name=floridatoday_26216836069515264/> With successive tests and refinements on several flights, intact fairing recovery was stated as an objective for 2017, with reflight of a recovered fairing planned in 2018.<ref name=issR&Dconf20170719-14:15/>
The "bouncy castle" meme was in fact a net strung between large arms of a fast [[platform supply vessel]] named ''[[Mr. Steven|Mr. Steven (now GO Ms. Tree)]]''. The recovery vessel is equipped with [[dynamic positioning]] systems, and was tested after the launch of the [[Paz (satellite)|Paz]] satellite from [[Vandenberg Air Force Base]] in 2017.<ref name=techcrunch20180220>{{cite news|last1=Etherington|first1=Darrell|title=SpaceX to use a net boat called 'Mr. Steven' to recover next rocket fairing|url=https://techcrunch.com/2018/02/20/spacex-to-use-a-net-boat-called-mr-steven-to-recover-next-rocket-fairing/|access-date=February 20, 2018|work=TechCrunch|date=February 20, 2018|language=en|archive-date=February 20, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180220133120/https://techcrunch.com/2018/02/20/spacex-to-use-a-net-boat-called-mr-steven-to-recover-next-rocket-fairing/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="nsf-20180225">{{cite news|last1=Baylor|first1=Michael|title=SpaceX's Mr. Steven, the FSV fairing catcher – NASASpaceFlight.com|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2018/02/spacexs-mr-steven-fsv-fairing-catcher/|access-date=February 26, 2018|work=NASASpaceFlight.com|date=February 25, 2018|archive-date=February 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225204148/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2018/02/spacexs-mr-steven-fsv-fairing-catcher/|url-status=live}}</ref> This mission was also the first to use a version 2 fairing, explicitly designed to "improve survivability for post-launch recovery attempts, and to be reusable on future missions".<ref name="nsf-20180220">{{cite news|last1=Graham|first1=William|title=SpaceX Falcon 9 set for PAZ launch with Starlink demo and new fairing – NASASpaceFlight.com|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2018/02/spacex-falcon-9-paz-launch-starlink-demo-new-fairing/|access-date=February 21, 2018|work=NASASpaceFlight.com|date=February 20, 2018|archive-date=March 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309232156/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2018/02/spacex-falcon-9-paz-launch-starlink-demo-new-fairing/|url-status=live}}</ref> This recovery attempt was not fully successful; the fairing missed the boat by a few hundred meters but landed intact in the water<ref>{{cite tweet |user=elonmusk |author-link=Elon Musk |number=966692641533390848 |date=22 Feb 2018 |title=Missed by a few hundred meters, but fairing landed intact in water. Should be able catch it with slightly bigger chutes to slow down descent. }}</ref> before being recovered and taken back to port.<ref name="nsf-20180225" /> {{asof|2018|08}}, all four attempts by SpaceX to land a fairing on a recovery ship had failed, despite fitting ''Mr. Steven'' with larger nets before the July 2018 attempt.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bartels |first1=Meghan |title=SpaceX Lands Rocket in Harshest Conditions to Date and Attempts to Catch Fairing |url=https://www.space.com/41273-spacex-launch-iridium-satellites-harsh-weather.html |website=Space.com |publisher=Purch |access-date=7 August 2018 |date=July 25, 2018 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126033435/https://www.space.com/41273-spacex-launch-iridium-satellites-harsh-weather.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Wall |first1=Mike |title=SpaceX Gives Nose-Cone-Catching Boat 'Mr. Steven' a Bigger Net |url=https://www.space.com/41168-spacex-boat-mr-steven-bigger-net.html |website=Space.com |publisher=Purch |access-date=7 August 2018 |date=July 13, 2018 |archive-date=August 8, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808043400/https://www.space.com/41168-spacex-boat-mr-steven-bigger-net.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
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In April 2019, during the second Falcon Heavy mission, recovery boat ''Go Searcher'' fished the fairing halves out of the sea and it was announced the fairings would be used on a [[Starlink (satellite constellation)|Starlink]] mission.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wall|first1=Mike|title=SpaceX Recovered Falcon Heavy Nose Cone, Plans to Re-fly it This Year (Photos)|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-reuse-payload-fairing-starlink-launch.html|website=Space.com|publisher=Purch|access-date=16 April 2019|date=15 April 2019|archive-date=February 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209040053/https://www.space.com/spacex-reuse-payload-fairing-starlink-launch.html|url-status=live}}</ref> These fairings were reused in a Starlink mission on 11 November 2019.<ref name=SL1>{{cite web|title=Successful launch continues deployment of SpaceX's Starlink network|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/11/11/successful-launch-continues-deployment-of-spacexs-starlink-network/|date=November 11, 2019|access-date=November 11, 2019|archive-date=November 17, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117160301/https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/11/11/successful-launch-continues-deployment-of-spacexs-starlink-network/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In June 2019, following the third Falcon Heavy launch, the first successful fairing catch was made. Images posted to Twitter hours after launch showed one half of the fairing
By late 2020, payload fairings were being regularly recovered by SpaceX, with SpaceX dispatching two custom-modified recovery ships—''[[Ms. Tree (ship)|Ms. Tree]]'' and ''[[Ms. Chief]]''—to collect the fairings on most launches from their Florida launch site. By this time, SpaceX was also regularly reflying recovered fairings on launches, usually on their own flights where [[Starlink]] satellites are the [[primary payload|primary]] or only payload. {{asof|2020|08}} however, successful net landings were not yet routine, with less than half of the fairings of the previous three months being caught in the nets, but most still recovered anyway after a soft landing in the ocean.
By April 2021, SpaceX had abandoned the experimental program to attempt recovery of dry payload fairings under [[parachute descent]] in a net on a [[platform supply vessel|fast ship]]. SpaceX decided to operationalize "wet recovery" of fairings on future Falcon 9 flights, having found that they can clean, refurbish, and reuse such fairings more economically.<ref name="ars20210409">{{cite news |last=Berger |first=Eric |date=9 April 2021 |title=Rocket Report: SpaceX abandons catching fairings |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/04/rocket-report-spacex-abandons-catching-fairings-ula-bets-on-upper-stages/ |
By 26 May 2021, SpaceX had launched 40 flights that reflew at least one previously-flown fairing half, and one fairing had flown on five different flights, having been recovered and cleaned four previous times. As of now, SN152 is the oldest active fairing half still in use, while SN185 is the most flown (32 flights) active fairing half. On the other hand SN168 is the oldest, most-flown (28 flights) passive fairing half.<ref name=sn20210526>{{cite news |title=SpaceX sets Falcon 9 fairing reuse mark with Starlink launch |url=https://spacenews.com/spacex-sets-falcon-9-fairing-reuse-mark-with-starlink-launch/ |work=[[SpaceNews]] |last=Foust|first=Jeff |date=26 May 2021 |access-date=28 May 2021}}</ref>
=== Second-stage reuse ===
Despite early public statements that SpaceX would endeavor to make the Falcon 9 second-stage reusable as well, by late 2014, they determined that the mass needed for a re-entry heat shield, landing engines, and other equipment to support recovery of the second stage as well as the diversion of development resources from other company objectives was at that time prohibitive, and indefinitely suspended their second-stage reusability plans for the Falcon rockets.<ref name="ElonMuskMITInteview">{{cite video |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y13jbl7ASxY&t=14m20s |title=Elon Musk MIT Interview |time=14:20 |first=C. Scott |last=Ananian |date=October 24, 2014 |access-date=July 16, 2017 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Borogove |first=Russell |date=31 July 2015 |title=reuse – How does SpaceX plan to achieve reusability of the Falcon 9 *second* stage? |url=https://space.stackexchange.com/questions/10391/how-does-spacex-plan-to-achieve-reusability-of-the-falcon-9-second-stage |
{{cite news |last=Hanry |first=Caleb |date=2017-11-21 |title=SpaceX aims to follow a banner year with an even faster 2018 launch cadence |url=http://spacenews.com/spacex-aims-to-follow-a-banner-year-with-an-even-faster-2018-launch-cadence/ |access-date=2018-01-15 |work=[[SpaceNews]] |quote=Shotwell said SpaceX plans to attempt second stage recoveries from the existing Falcon family is less to reuse them, and more to learn about reusability in preparation for the BFR’s second stage.}}</ref> and in May 2018 provided additional details about how they might carry out some of that testing.<ref name="nsf20180517">{{cite news |last=Baylor |first=Michael |date=2018-05-17 |title=With Block 5, SpaceX to increase launch cadence and lower prices |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2018/05/block-5-spacex-increase-launch-cadence-lower-prices/ |
▲and in May 2018 provided additional details about how they might carry out some of that testing.<ref name=nsf20180517>{{cite news |last=Baylor |first=Michael |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2018/05/block-5-spacex-increase-launch-cadence-lower-prices/ |title=With Block 5, SpaceX to increase launch cadence and lower prices |work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]] |date=2018-05-17 |access-date=2018-05-22 |quote=''Musk: "in the upcoming flights [SpaceX will] gather data about the reentry experience of the upper stage. Previously, we had not put a lot of effort into gathering data from the upper stage after it does its disposal burn. We will monitoring at what altitude and speed the stage breaks up…" Collecting this data is not easy. Musk explained that "it’s tricky because it comes in like a meteor. It’s sort of like a ball of plasma. You can only broadcast diagonally backwards, so we will be looking to communicate, probably [with] the Iridium constellation, and try to transmit basic data about temperature, basic health of the stage, velocity, and altitude."'' |archive-date=May 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180518060725/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2018/05/block-5-spacex-increase-launch-cadence-lower-prices/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
The Starship is planned to replace all existing SpaceX launch and space vehicles after the mid-2020s: [[Falcon 9]], [[Falcon Heavy]] and the [[Dragon spacecraft]], aimed initially at the Earth-orbit [[Space launch market competition|launch market]] but with capability to support [[Beyond Earth orbit|long-duration spaceflight]] in the [[cislunar]] and [[Exploration of Mars|Mars mission]] environments.<ref name=musk20170929>
{{cite AV media | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tdUX3ypDVwI | people=Elon Musk | title=Becoming a Multiplanet Species |date=29 September 2017 |medium=video | ___location=68th annual meeting of the International Astronautical Congress in Adelaide, Australia | publisher=SpaceX | via=YouTube | access-date=8 March 2018}}</ref> Both stages will be fully reusable. The integrated [[
=== Reuse of Dragon capsules ===
SpaceX's [[Dragon capsule]]s have been gradually improved for reuse. Structural elements and internal components are being refurbished between flights, while the heat shield is replaced for each new mission. The last newly built Dragon cargo capsule first flew in July 2017; all subsequent ISS resupply missions were conducted with refurbished capsules,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/07/tdrs-priority-crs-12-dragon-launch-dates-realign/ |title=TDRS-M given priority over CRS-12 Dragon as launch dates realign |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |first=Chris |last=Gebhardt |date=26 July 2017 |access-date=11 January 2020 |archive-date=August 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818032624/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/07/tdrs-priority-crs-12-dragon-launch-dates-realign/ |url-status=live }}</ref> some capsules made a third flight.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1152361282982465536|user=SpaceX|title=The Dragon spacecraft supporting this mission previously visited the @space_station in April 2015 and December 2017|date=July 19, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1199463905258590208|user=SpaceX|title=The Dragon spacecraft supporting this mission previously flew in support of our fourth and eleventh commercial resupply missions|date=27 November 2019}}</ref> Dragon's trunk section cannot be reused, as it is designed to burn up in the atmosphere after completing its mission.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/12/falcon-9-launch-crs-19-dragon-iss/ |title=CRS-19 Dragon completes journey to the ISS |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |first=William |last=Graham |date=5 December 2019 |access-date=11 January 2020 |archive-date=December 21, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221225539/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/12/falcon-9-launch-crs-19-dragon-iss/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
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In the first year of successful stage return from the experimental test flights, SpaceX performed ''[[ad hoc]]'' and flight-specific evaluation and component testing on each successfully landed stage. Stages were processed and initially evaluated in either launch hangars, or for Cape Canaveral landings, in the new hangar SpaceX recently completed at [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39]]. Returned rocket parts have also been transported to [[SpaceX Hawthorne]] and [[SpaceX McGregor]] for engineering evaluation and testing.
In February 2017, after eight rocket cores had successfully
== Starship reusability development ==
{{Main|SpaceX Starship design history}}
The goal of the Starship launch system is to be a fully reusable orbital launch and reentry vehicle.<ref name=":242">{{Cite journal|last1=Inman|first1=Jennifer Ann|last2=Horvath|first2=Thomas J.|last3=Scott|first3=Carey Fulton|date=24 August 2021|title=SCIFLI Starship Reentry Observation (SSRO) ACO (SpaceX Starship)|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20210020835|url-status=live|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011134426/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20210020835|archive-date=11 October 2021|access-date=12 October 2021|website=[[NASA]]}}</ref> The Starship launch system consists of two stages: a Super Heavy booster and a Starship spacecraft;<ref name="20190928techcrunch-elon">{{cite news|last=Etherington|first=Darrell|date=29 September 2019|title=Elon Musk says Starship should reach orbit within six months – and could even fly with a crew next year|publisher=TechCrunch|url=https://techcrunch.com/2019/09/28/elon-musk-says-starship-should-reach-orbit-within-six-months-and-it-could-even-fly-with-a-crew-next-year/|url-status=live|access-date=24 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924073050/https://techcrunch.com/2019/09/28/elon-musk-says-starship-should-reach-orbit-within-six-months-and-it-could-even-fly-with-a-crew-next-year/|archive-date=24 September 2021}}</ref> both have a body made from [[SAE 304 stainless steel|SAE 304L stainless steel]]<ref name=":72">{{Cite news|last=Howell|first=Elizabeth|date=21 August 2021|title=Every SpaceX Starship explosion and what Elon Musk and team learned from them (video)|language=en|website=[[Space.com]]|url=https://www.space.com/every-spacex-starship-explosion-lessons-learned|url-status=live|access-date=11 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903073445/https://www.space.com/every-spacex-starship-explosion-lessons-learned|archive-date=3 September 2021}}</ref> and are designed to hold [[liquid oxygen]] and [[liquid methane]]. Super Heavy and then Starship will boost the payload
=== Design history ===
[[File:BFR_in_flight_(cropped)-2018_version.png|alt=Artist's depiction of a white rocket, consisting of the booster firing its engines and the spacecraft at the top with its fins|thumb|upright=0.8|Artist depiction by SpaceX of Big Falcon Rocket in flight]]
The first reference by SpaceX of a rocket concept with Starship lifting capabilities was in 2005. In a student conference, Musk briefly mentioned a theoretical [[Heavy-lift launch vehicle|heavy‑lift launch vehicle]] code-named BFR, later known as the Falcon XX.<ref>{{cite news|last=Foust|first=Jeff|date=14 November 2005|title=Big plans for SpaceX|publisher=The Space Review|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/497/1|url-status=live|access-date=16 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124153155/http://www.thespacereview.com/article/497/1|archive-date=24 November 2005}}</ref> It would be powered by a larger version of the [[SpaceX Merlin|Merlin]] engine, called Merlin 2, and feature a lifting capability of {{Cvt|140|metric ton|lb}} to low Earth orbit.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|last=Markusic|first=Tom|date=28 July 2010|title=Series of presentation of SpaceX in July 2010|url=https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=22395.msg623684#msg623684;attach=241178;sess=0|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030193349/http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=22395.msg623684#msg623684;attach=241178;sess=0|archive-date=30 October 2013|access-date=9 October 2021|publisher=[[SpaceX]]|page=4|type=pdf}}</ref> In 2012, in a public discussion about a conceptual Mars colonization program, Musk described the Mars Colonial Transporter. He envisioned it as a reusable [[super heavy-lift launch vehicle]] that could deliver approximately {{cvt|150|to|200|metric ton|lb}} to [[low Earth orbit]]. The Mars Colonial Transporter might be powered by
In September 2016, at the 67th [[International Astronautical Congress]], Musk announced the Interplanetary Transport System (ITS), a conceptual reusable rocket conceived to launch humans to Mars and other destinations in the [[Solar System]]. The ITS was to be {{cvt|122|m}} tall, {{cvt|12|m}} wide, and capable of lifting {{cvt|300|metric ton|lb}} to low Earth orbit.<ref name="nsf20160927a">{{cite news|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=27 September 2016|title=SpaceX reveals ITS Mars game changer via colonization plan|publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2016/09/spacex-reveals-mars-game-changer-colonization-plan/|url-status=live|access-date=27 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160928154300/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2016/09/spacex-reveals-mars-game-changer-colonization-plan/|archive-date=28 September 2016}}</ref> Both stages were to be made from [[Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers|carbon composites]]. The first stage or booster was to be powered by 42 Raptors, and the second stage by nine Raptors.<ref name="nsf20161003">{{cite news|last=Belluscio|first=Alejandro G.|date=3 October 2016|title=ITS Propulsion – The evolution of the SpaceX Raptor engine|publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2016/10/its-propulsion-evolution-raptor-engine/|url-status=live|access-date=3 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122165306/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2016/10/its-propulsion-evolution-raptor-engine/|archive-date=22 November 2018}}</ref> Once refueled while in Earth orbit, the spacecraft [[Delta-v|could accelerate]] to Mars.<ref name="sfi20160927">{{cite news|last=Richardson|first=Derek|date=27 September 2016|title=Elon Musk Shows Off Interplanetary Transport System|publisher=Spaceflight Insider|url=http://www.spaceflightinsider.com/organizations/space-exploration-technologies/elon-musk-shows-off-interplanetary-transport-system/|url-status=live|access-date=3 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001225649/http://www.spaceflightinsider.com/organizations/space-exploration-technologies/elon-musk-shows-off-interplanetary-transport-system/|archive-date=1 October 2016}}</ref> When an Interplanetary Spaceship enters the atmosphere, it cools itself via [[Transpiration cooling|transpiration]] and controls the spacecraft's descent by moving its [[delta wing]]s and [[Flap (aeronautics)#Split_flap|split flap]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mosher|first=Dave|date=16 February 2019|title=Elon Musk says SpaceX is developing a 'bleeding' heavy-metal rocket ship. Making it work may be 100 times as hard as NASA's most difficult Mars mission, one expert says.|publisher=Business Insider|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-starship-bleeding-transpirational-atmospheric-reentry-system-challenges-2019-2|url-status=live|access-date=24 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712132123/https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-starship-bleeding-transpirational-atmospheric-reentry-system-challenges-2019-2|archive-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> At the following Congress, Musk announced a replacement rocket called the Big Falcon Rocket or informally Big Fucking Rocket. The Big Falcon Rocket is {{cvt|106|m}} tall and {{cvt|9|m}} wide.<ref>{{cite news|last=Malik|first=Tariq|date=14 September 2018|title=SpaceX Has Apparently Tweaked Its Giant BFR Rocket Design. And It Looks Awesome!|publisher=Space.com|url=https://www.space.com/41825-spacex-giant-bfr-rocket-moon-flight-design-art.html|url-status=live|access-date=24 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825155706/https://www.space.com/41825-spacex-giant-bfr-rocket-moon-flight-design-art.html|archive-date=25 August 2021}}</ref> In that conference, he talked about a possible [[Sub-orbital spaceflight#Sub-orbital transportation|suborbital transportation]] feature and termed it Earth to Earth.<ref name="nsf202101192">{{cite news|last=Burghardt|first=Thomas|date=19 January 2021|title=SpaceX acquires former oil rigs to serve as floating Starship spaceports|publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/01/spacex-rigs-starship-spaceports/|url-status=live|access-date=20 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120001114/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/01/spacex-rigs-starship-spaceports/|archive-date=20 January 2021}}</ref>
In November 2018, the present names were first used: Super Heavy for the booster, Starship for the spacecraft, and Starship system or just Starship for the whole vehicle.<ref>{{cite news|date=20 November 2018|title=SpaceX's Elon Musk renames his big rocket 'Starship'|publisher=phys.org|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-11-spacex-elon-musk-renames-big.html|url-status=live|access-date=17 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618101716/https://phys.org/news/2018-11-spacex-elon-musk-renames-big.html|archive-date=18 June 2021}}</ref> Around that time, Musk announced a redesigned spacecraft concept with three aft flaps and two forward flaps.<ref name="20180917theverge-17871724">{{cite news|last=Grush|first=Loren|date=17 September 2018|title=Elon Musk reveals updated design for future SpaceX Mars rocket|publisher=The Verge|url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/9/17/17871724/spacex-big-falcon-rocket-bfr-mars-design-elon-musk|url-status=live|access-date=24 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412040645/https://www.theverge.com/2018/9/17/17871724/spacex-big-falcon-rocket-bfr-mars-design-elon-musk|archive-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> In January 2019, Musk announced that Starship would be made from stainless steel and stated that this might be stronger than an equivalent carbon composite in a wide range of temperatures.<ref>{{cite news|last=Berger|first=Eric|date=8 January 2019|title=Here's why Elon Musk is tweeting constantly about a stainless-steel starship|publisher=Ars Technica|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/01/elon-musk-is-really-really-excited-about-his-starship/|url-status=live|access-date=24 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209005033/https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/01/elon-musk-is-really-really-excited-about-his-starship/|archive-date=9 December 2019}}</ref> In March, Musk tweeted that SpaceX opted for a heat shield composed of hexagonal ceramic tiles instead of transpiration.<ref name=":14">{{cite news|last=Malik|first=Tariq|date=22 March 2019|title=SpaceX's Hexagon Tiles for Starship Heat Shield Pass Fiery Test|publisher=Space.com|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-hexagon-heat-shield-tile-test.html|url-status=live|access-date=24 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306144630/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-hexagon-heat-shield-tile-test.html|archive-date=6 March 2021}}</ref> In October, the Starship spacecraft's engine configuration was changed to three Raptors optimized for atmospheric pressure and three optimized for space.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wall|first=Mike|date=20 October 2020|title=SpaceX fires up 3-engine Starship SN8 prototype ahead of epic test flight|publisher=Space.com|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn8-prototype-static-fire|url-status=live|access-date=24 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227011643/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn8-prototype-static-fire|archive-date=27 February 2021}}</ref> The number of rear fins was reduced from three to two and placed at the heat shield's edges.<ref name="20190930techcrunch-spacex">{{cite news|last=Etherington|first=Darrell|date=30 September 2019|title=SpaceX details Starship and Super Heavy in new website|publisher=TechCrunch|url=https://
=== Testing ===
[[File:SpaceX_Starship_SN8_launch_as_viewed_from_South_Padre_Island.jpg|alt=A picture of flying rocket, with large plume at the ground|thumb|upright=1.4|SN8 launch at the Boca Chica launch site, firing three Raptors]]
On 27 August 2019, a simplified test article named ''Starhopper'' hopped {{cvt|150|m}} high.<ref name="spacenews20190827">{{cite news|last=Foust|first=Jeff|date=27 August 2019|title=SpaceX's Starhopper completes test flight|publisher=SpaceNews|url=https://spacenews.com/spacexs-starhopper-completes-test-flight/|access-date=28 August 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Unveiled in a SpaceX event in September 2019, Starship Mk1 (Mark 1) was the first full‑scale Starship test article to be built. The Mk2 in Florida was constructed five months later.<ref name=":6">{{cite news|date=5 October 2019|title=SpaceX's Starship is a new kind of rocket, in every sense|publisher=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2019/10/05/spacexs-starship-is-a-new-kind-of-rocket-in-every-sense|url-status=live|access-date=23 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111225747/https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2019/10/05/spacexs-starship-is-a-new-kind-of-rocket-in-every-sense|archive-date=11 November 2019}}</ref> Neither flew: Mk1 was destroyed during a cryogenic proof test and Mk2 was scrapped.<ref>{{cite news|last=Marley|first=Ronnie|date=20 November 2019|title=SpaceX moving to MK3 vehicle following incident at Boca Chica Facility|work=CBS News|url=https://valleycentral.com/news/local/spacex-starship-mk1-explodes-at-boca-chica-facility|url-status=live|access-date=10 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217150935/https://valleycentral.com/news/local/spacex-starship-mk1-explodes-at-boca-chica-facility|archive-date=17 December 2019}}</ref> In early 2020, SpaceX changed Mk3's name to SN1 (serial number 1).<ref>{{cite news|last=Torbet|first=Georgina|date=27 April 2020|title=SpaceX Starship Successfully Passes Pressure Testing|publisher=Digital Trends|url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/news/spacex-starship-sn4-pass-pressure-test/|url-status=live|access-date=23 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301073531/https://www.digitaltrends.com/news/spacex-starship-sn4-pass-pressure-test/|archive-date=1 March 2021}}</ref> During a cryogenic proof test on 28 February 2021, a fault in SN1's bottom tank caused it to crumble. On 8 March 2020, SN2's stripped-down test tank completed its only cryogenic proof test.<ref name="space-20200310">{{cite news|last=Wall|first=Mike|date=10 March 2020|title=SpaceX's latest Starship prototype passes big tank pressure test|publisher=Space.com|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn2-prototype-pressure-test.html|url-status=live|access-date=10 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311202449/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn2-prototype-pressure-test.html|archive-date=11 March 2020}}</ref> On 3 April 2020, during SN3's cryogenic proof test, a valve leaked the liquid nitrogen inside its lower tank, causing the vessel to depressurize and collapse.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bartels|first=Meghan|date=3 April 2020|title=SpaceX's Starship SN3 prototype collapses in pressure tank test|publisher=Space.com|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn3-pressure-test-failure.html|url-status=live|access-date=28 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918053840/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn3-pressure-test-failure.html|archive-date=18 September 2021}}</ref> After SN4's fifth successful static fire test on 29 May 2020, the [[Quick connect fitting|quick disconnect fuel line]] caused it to explode.<ref name="sn20200529">{{cite news|last=Foust|first=Jeff|date=29 May 2020|title=SpaceX Starship prototype destroyed after static-fire test|publisher=SpaceNews|url=https://spacenews.com/spacex-starship-prototype-destroyed-after-static-fire-test/|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref> On 15 June 2020, Musk tweeted that new prototypes would be made from [[SAE 304 stainless steel|SAE 304L]] instead of 301 stainless steel.<ref name=":72"/> On 4 August 2020, SN5 completed a {{cvt|150|m}} hop using a single Raptor, the first full-scale test article to complete a flight test intact.<ref name="techcrunch-20200804">{{cite news|last=Etherington|first=Darrell|date=5 August 2020|title=SpaceX Successfully Flies its Starship Prototype to a Height of Around 500 Feet|publisher=TechCrunch|url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/08/04/spacex-successfully-flies-its-starship-prototype-to-a-height-of-around-500-feet/|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519235715/https://techcrunch.com/2020/08/04/spacex-successfully-flies-its-starship-prototype-to-a-height-of-around-500-feet/|archive-date=19 May 2021}}</ref> On 24 August 2020, SN6 replicated SN5's flight path successfully.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wall|first=Mike|date=9 September 2020|title=Watch SpaceX's SN6 Starship prototype soar on test flight (video)|publisher=Space.com|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn6-prototype-test-flight-video.html|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829122256/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn6-prototype-test-flight-video.html|archive-date=29 August 2021}}</ref> SN7 was not completed, but as of October 2021, its tanks were salvaged for various experiments.<ref>{{cite news|last=Malik|first=Tariq|date=23 June 2020|title=Boom! SpaceX pops huge Starship SN7 test tank on purpose in pressure test (videos)|publisher=Space.com|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn7-test-tank-destroyed-videos.html|url-status=live|access-date=21 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719130934/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn7-test-tank-destroyed-videos.html|archive-date=19 July 2020}}</ref>
SN8 was the first complete test article.<ref name="20201210cnn-tech">{{cite news|last=Wattles|first=Jackie|date=10 December 2020|title=Space X's Mars prototype rocket exploded yesterday. Here's what happened on the flight|work=CNN|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/12/10/tech/spacex-starship-sn8-test-flight-recap-scn/index.html|url-status=live|access-date=10 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210223909/https://www.cnn.com/2020/12/10/tech/spacex-starship-sn8-test-flight-recap-scn/index.html|archive-date=10 December 2020}}</ref> In October and November 2020, SN8 underwent four static fire tests; the first, second, and fourth were successful, but the third caused an engine shutdown. According to Musk, the force from the engine destroyed parts of the launch pad sending some pieces of it into the engine.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wall|first=Mike|date=24 November 2020|title=SpaceX's Starship SN8 prototype fires engines ahead of major test flight|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn8-fourth-static-fire|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123055557/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn8-fourth-static-fire|archive-date=23 January 2021|access-date=5 October 2021|website=[[Space.com]]}}</ref> On 9 December 2020, SN8 performed the first flight by a Starship, reaching an altitude of {{cvt|12.5|km}}. During landing, its methane header tank did not provide sufficient fuel to the Raptors, reducing thrust from one engine. The test article exploded on impact.<ref name=":10">{{cite news|last=Wall|first=Mike|date=10 December 2020|title=SpaceX's Starship SN8 Prototype Soars on Epic Test Launch, with Explosive Landing|publisher=Scientific American|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/spacexs-starship-sn8-prototype-soars-on-epic-test-launch-with-explosive-landing/|url-status=live|access-date=3 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123020133/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/spacexs-starship-sn8-prototype-soars-on-epic-test-launch-with-explosive-landing/|archive-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> On 2 February 2021, SN9 flew {{cvt|10|km}} high.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mack|first=Eric|date=7 January 2021|title=SpaceX Starship SN9 flies high, explodes on landing just like SN8|publisher=CNET|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/spacex-starship-sn9-rocket-flies-high-explodes-on-landing-just-like-sn8/|url-status=live|access-date=20 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918040913/https://www.cnet.com/news/spacex-starship-sn9-rocket-flies-high-explodes-on-landing-just-like-sn8/|archive-date=18 September 2021}}</ref> While descending, one of its engines did not function and burst on landing at an angle.<ref name=":12">{{cite news|last=Sheetz|first=Michael|date=2 February 2021|title=SpaceX's Starship prototype again explodes on landing attempt after successful launch|publisher=CNBC|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/02/02/spacex-starship-sn9-explodes-on-attempted-landing.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202204159/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/02/02/spacex-starship-sn9-explodes-on-attempted-landing.html|archive-date=2 February 2021}}</ref> On 3 March 2021, SN10 repeated SN9's flight path, then [[Hard landing|hard landed]] and destroyed itself in an explosion 8 minutes later.<ref name=":13">{{cite news|last=Chang|first=Kenneth|date=3 March 2021|title=SpaceX Mars Rocket Prototype Explodes, but This Time It Lands First|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/03/science/spacex-starship-launch-sn10.html|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605013824/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/03/science/spacex-starship-launch-sn10.html|archive-date=5 June 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
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The first Super Heavy booster named BN1 (booster number 1) finished construction on 8 March 2021, but it had not received engines.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=29 March 2021|title=Starship SN11 lands in bits as SpaceX refine forward plan|publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/03/starship-sn11-returns-super-heavy-bn1-rollout-follow/|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814004802/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/03/starship-sn11-returns-super-heavy-bn1-rollout-follow/|archive-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> On 30 March 2021, SN11 exploded in midair without a confirmed explanation because of the dense fog at the launch site.<ref>{{cite news|last=Griffin|first=Andrew|date=1 April 2021|title=Elon Musk confirms SpaceX Starship exploded in 'crater'|newspaper=The Independent|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/space/spacex-launch-elon-musk-starship-sn11-twitter-b1824437.html|url-status=dead|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401083208/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/space/spacex-launch-elon-musk-starship-sn11-twitter-b1824437.html|archive-date=1 April 2021}}</ref> A possible explanation is that an engine might have burned the test article's [[avionics]] and could have caused a [[hard start]] on the engine's turbopump.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wall|first=Mike|date=5 April 2021|title=SpaceX identifies cause of Starship SN11 prototype's crash|publisher=Space.com|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn11-crash-cause|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507050858/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn11-crash-cause|archive-date=7 May 2021}}</ref> After the launch, SpaceX skipped SN12, SN13, SN14, and BN2, and incorporated obsolete test articles' improvements to SN15 instead.<ref name=":8">{{cite news|last=Wall|first=Mike|date=13 April 2021|title=SpaceX's SN15 Starship prototype rolls out to launch pad|publisher=Space.com|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn15-launch-pad|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424192858/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn15-launch-pad|archive-date=24 April 2021}}</ref> On 5 May 2021, the test article flew the same flight path as previous test articles and [[Soft landing (aeronautics)|soft landed]] successfully.<ref name=":18">{{cite news|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|date=5 May 2021|title=SpaceX Starship prototype makes clean landing|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-57004604|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506070737/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-57004604|archive-date=6 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Gorman|first=Steve|date=6 May 2021|title=Elon Musk's SpaceX Starship completes successful launch and landing after several fiery failures|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/spacex-starship-rocket-prototype-achieves-first-safe-landing-2021-05-06/|url-status=live|access-date=29 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506040354/https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/spacex-starship-rocket-prototype-achieves-first-safe-landing-2021-05-06/|archive-date=6 May 2021}}</ref> On 20 July 2021, BN3 fired its engines for the only time.<ref name=":15">{{cite news|last=Tariq|first=Malik|date=20 July 2021|title=SpaceX test fires massive Super Heavy booster for Starship for 1st time (video)|publisher=Space.com|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-super-heavy-rocket-booster-engine-test|url-status=live|access-date=11 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803210509/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-super-heavy-rocket-booster-engine-test|archive-date=3 August 2021}}</ref> As of October 2021, SN15, SN16, and BN3 had been retired and displayed.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{cite news|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=3 July 2021|title=Booster 3 opens Super Heavy test campaign as orbital vehicles prepare to stack|publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/07/booster-3-super-heavy-test-campaign/|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711105222/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/07/booster-3-super-heavy-test-campaign/|archive-date=11 July 2021}}</ref>
After the flight of SN15 SpaceX ended the suborbital flight campaign and tested prototypes on the ground for almost two years. [[
Booster 7 and Ship 24 launched for a first integrated flight test on 20 April 2023, planned to fly 3/4 of an orbit and reenter over the ocean near Hawaii. The rocket cleared the launch pad and flew for three minutes but several booster engines failed during the flight and the rocket eventually lost control before stage separation, reaching a maximum altitude of {{Cvt|39|km|mi}}. The [[flight termination system]] was triggered and a subsequent explosion destroyed the vehicle.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Malik |first1=Tariq |last2=Wall |first2=Mike |date=2023-04-20 |title=SpaceX's 1st Starship launches on epic test flight, explodes in 'rapid unscheduled disassembly' |url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-first-space-launch |access-date=2023-11-15 |website=Space.com |language=en}}</ref> The launch broke the concrete pad under the launch mount, resulting in SpaceX replacing it with a water-cooled steel plate for subsequent launches.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why did SpaceX Starship's debut launch cause so much damage to the pad?|website=[[Space.com]] |date=April 24, 2023 |url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-damage-starbase-launch-pad|access-date=2023-11-15}}</ref>
Booster 9 and Ship 25 launched on the second integrated flight test on 18 November 2023, which had an identical planned trajectory to the first flight.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=2023-11-18 |title=Starship brought the thunder as it climbed into space for the first time |url=https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/spacex-can-celebrate-three-big-wins-after-second-starship-test-flight/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}}</ref> Unlike Booster 7, Booster 9 had no engine failures until the beginning of the boostback burn, when it exploded for currently unknown reasons.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=2023-12-15 |title=Rocket Report: Signs of life from Blue Origin; SpaceX preps next Starship |url=https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/12/rocket-report-next-starship-to-fly-in-early-2024-ulas-vulcan-delayed/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}}</ref> Ship 25 reached a final velocity of over 15000 mph before being destroyed by its flight termination system.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-21 |title=
Booster 10 and Ship 28 were flown on [[SpaceX Starship integrated flight test 3|Integrated Flight Test 3]], on March 14, 2024.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=STARSHIP'S THIRD FLIGHT TEST |url=https://www.spacex.com/launches/mission/?missionId=starship-flight-3 |access-date=2024-03-27 |website=SpaceX |language=en}}</ref> It had a different trajectory than the previous two launches, targeting a hard splashdown of the ship in the Indian Ocean.<ref name=":0" /> During ascent and boostback, there were no engine failures, though during the landing burn, all but one of B10s center engines failed.<ref name=":0" /> S28 had an aborted raptor relight attempt, and burned up during reentry.<ref name=":0" />
On June 6, 2024, SpaceX launched Booster 11 and Ship 29 on the [[Starship flight test 4|IFT-4]] mission. After shutting off one engine shortly after liftoff, Starship continued on a trajectory similar to IFT-3, only without the attempted raptor relight. After performing its boostback burn and jettisoning the hot-staging ring, Super Heavy successfully reentered and landed,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2024-06-06 |title=Starship survives reentry during fourth test flight |url=https://spacenews.com/starship-survives-reentry-during-fourth-test-flight/ |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref> with SpaceX executive [[Bill Gerstenmaier]] saying that it landed with half a centimeter of accuracy. Starship continued to its planned orbit and began reentry around 40 minutes later. It demonstrated far better attitude control than Ship 28 but had plasma burn through its flaps during the more intense parts of reentry.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wall |first=Mike |date=2024-06-06 |title=SpaceX Starship launches on nail-biting 4th test flight of world's most powerful rocket (video, photos) |url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-flight-4-test-launch-success |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=Space.com |language=en}}</ref> Despite the significant damage to the flaps, which Starship relied on for aerodynamic control, a successful water landing was achieved, albeit 6 kilometers off target.
Booster 12 and Ship 30 launched on October 13, 2024. The booster kept all thirty three engines lit until stage separation, before performing a successful boostback burn.<ref name="nsf20241012">{{Cite web |last=Weber |first=Ryan |date=2024-10-12 |title=SpaceX Catches a Super Heavy Booster During a Milestone Flight 5 |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2024/10/starship-flight-5-catch/ |access-date=2024-10-14 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US}}</ref> The vehicle reentered, and was successfully caught by the launch tower.<ref name="nsf20241012" /> Ship 30 reached the desired trajectory, and retained attitude control until entry.<ref name="nsf20241012" /> It suffered minimal damage to the flaps during reentry, and achieved a successful landing burn on target.<ref name="nsf202410122">{{Cite web |last=Weber |first=Ryan |date=2024-10-12 |title=SpaceX Catches a Super Heavy Booster During a Milestone Flight 5 |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2024/10/starship-flight-5-catch/ |access-date=2024-10-14 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" widths="150" heights="150" caption="Pictures of Starship test articles">
File:Mk1 starship.jpg|alt=Photograph of equipment in front of white tents, with a steel nose cone at the back|Starship Mk1's nose cone near construction tents▼
File:SpaceX Starhopper.jpg|alt=Photograph of a short steel rocket stage with its fins touching the ground|''Starhopper'' in construction
▲File:Mk1 starship.jpg|alt=Photograph of equipment in front of white tents, with a steel nose cone at the back|Starship Mk1's nose cone near construction tents
File:Starship sn5.jpg|alt=Photograph of a crane hooking onto a steel vessel body|A crane lifting Starship SN5
File:Tanksn7.1.jpg|alt=Photograph of a steel tank|Starship SN7's tank
File:Starship SN9 Open Rear Flap.jpg|alt=Photograph of a spacecraft with a pair of steel flaps on top and bottom|Starship SN9 on the launchpad
File:Starship SN20 getting a tile inspection.jpg|alt=Photograph of a worker on an aerial work platform repairing a spacecraft's black heatshield|A worker
File:StarshipLaunch (crop 2-3).jpg|Booster 7 and Ship 24 in flight
File:Starship-IFT2-ascent.jpg|Ship 25 and Booster 9
File:SpaceX Starship booster landing approach IFT-5.jpg|Booster 12 descending towards the launch tower
</gallery>
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{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
* [[New Shepard]], a sub-orbital VTVL system
* [[SpaceX Grasshopper|Grasshopper]]
==Notes==
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