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{{Private spaceflight}}
[[SpaceX]] has [[private spaceflight|privately funded]] the development of [[Orbital spaceflight|orbital]] [[spacecraft|launch system]]s that can be [[reusable launch vehicle|reused]] many times, similar to the reusability of [[aircraft]]. SpaceX has developed technologies
The program was announced in 2011. SpaceX first achieved a [[Falcon 9 Flight 20|successful landing and recovery of a first stage]] in December 2015. The [[SES-10|first re-flight of a landed first stage]] occurred in March 2017<ref name=sn20170330/> with the second occurring in June 2017, that one only five months after the maiden flight of the booster.<ref name=sir-20170626 /> The third attempt occurred in October 2017 with the [[SES-11]]/[[EchoStar-105]] mission. Reflights of refurbished first stages then became routine. In May 2021, B1051 became the first booster to launch ten missions.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Sesnic|first1=Trevor|last2=Fletcher|first2=Colin|last3=Kanayama|first3=Lee|date=2021-05-08|title=SpaceX flies historic 10th mission of a Falcon 9 as Starlink constellation expands|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/05/historic-10th-falcon9-reflight/|access-date=2021-05-19|website=NASASpaceFlight.com|language=en-US|archive-date=May 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516121203/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/05/historic-10th-falcon9-reflight/|url-status=live}}</ref>
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* New [[Spacecraft attitude control|attitude control]] technology for the booster to bring the descending [[rocket body]] through the atmosphere in a manner conducive both to non-destructive return and [[Aerodynamic control surfaces|sufficient aerodynamic control]] such that the terminal phase of the [[VTVL|landing]] is possible.<ref name="pa20140114vid">
{{cite video |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XtNgWK4mm0M |title=Singapore Satellite Industry Forum 2013 – Opening Keynote |date=June 17, 2013 |language=en |access-date=April 9, 2016 |people=Gwynne Shotwell}}</ref> This includes sufficient roll [[Control system|control authority]] to keep the rocket from spinning excessively as occurred on the [[Falcon 9 Flight 6#Post-mission launch vehicle testing|first high-altitude flight test]] in September 2013, where the roll rate exceeded the capabilities of the booster [[attitude control system]] (ACS) and the fuel in the tanks "centrifuged" to the side of the tank shutting down the single engine involved in the low-altitude deceleration maneuver.<ref name="pa20130930" /><ref name="tss20140321b">{{cite AV media |url=http://archived.thespaceshow.com/shows/2212-BWB-2014-03-21.mp3 |title=Broadcast 2212: Special Edition, interview with Gwynne Shotwell |date=March 21, 2014 |medium=audio file |language=en |publisher=The Space Show |time=51;50–52;55 |access-date=March 22, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322013556/http://archived.thespaceshow.com/shows/2212-BWB-2014-03-21.mp3 |archive-date=March 22, 2014 |url-status=dead |format=mp3 |id=2212 |people=Gwynne Shotwell}}</ref> The technology needs to handle the transition from the vacuum of space at [[hypersonic]] conditions, decelerating to [[supersonic]] velocities and passing through [[Transonic buffet|transonic]] [[Buffet (turbulence)|buffet]], before relighting one of the main-stage engines at [[terminal velocity]].<ref name=pm20130930/>
* Hypersonic [[grid fin]]s were added to the booster test vehicle design beginning on the [[Falcon 9 Flight 14|fifth ocean controlled-descent test flight]] in 2014 in order to enable precision landing. Arranged in an "X" configuration, the grid fins control the descending rocket's [[lift vector]] once the vehicle has returned to the atmosphere to enable a much more precise [[Landing ellipse|landing ___location]].<ref name=sx20141216>{{cite
[[File:Falcon 9 with CRS-3 Dragon in SLC-40 hangar (16855338881).jpg|thumb|left|Falcon 9 v1.1 with landing legs attached, in stowed position as the rocket is prepared for launch in its hangar]]
* The [[Rocket engine throttling|rocket engine needs to be throttleable]] to achieve zero velocity at the same time the rocket reaches the ground. Even the lowest possible thrust of a single [[Merlin 1D]] engine exceeds the weight of the nearly empty Falcon 9 booster core, therefore the rocket cannot hover.<ref name=fg20130321>{{cite news |last=Rosenberg |first=Zach |title=SpaceX Merlin 1D qualified for flight |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/spacex-merlin-1d-qualified-for-flight-383738/ |access-date=March 18, 2014 |newspaper=Flightglobal |date=March 21, 2013 |archive-date=October 30, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030135922/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/spacex-merlin-1d-qualified-for-flight-383738/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=slr20140312>{{cite web |title=SpaceX Falcon 9 v1.1 Data Sheet |url=http://www.spacelaunchreport.com/falcon9v1-1.html |publisher=Space Launch Report |access-date=March 18, 2014 |date=March 12, 2014 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111220657/https://www.spacelaunchreport.com/falcon9v1-1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=blackmore2016/>
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* A large [[floating landing platform]] for launches where the first stage does not have sufficient fuel to return to the launch site. As of 2022, SpaceX built three [[autonomous spaceport drone ship]]s, one operating the West coast and two on the East coast of the United States.
* A [[thermal protection system]] to avoid damage to the first stage when re-entering the atmosphere.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/05/11/spacex-debuts-an-improved-human-rated-model-of-the-falcon-9-rocket/|title=SpaceX debuts new model of the Falcon 9 rocket designed for astronauts|date=11 May 2018|access-date=August 23, 2019|archive-date=April 1, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401055341/https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/05/11/spacex-debuts-an-improved-human-rated-model-of-the-falcon-9-rocket/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Lightweight, deployable [[Launch vehicle landing gear|landing gear]] for the booster stage.<ref name="satspot20110926" /><ref name=blackmore2016>{{cite journal |title=Autonomous Precision Landing of Space Rockets |journal=The Bridge, National Academy of Engineering |date=Winter 2016 |last=Blackmore |first=Lars |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=15–20 |issn=0737-6278 |url=http://web.mit.edu/larsb/www/nae_bridge_2016.pdf |access-date=January 15, 2017 |archive-date=January 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110121559/http://web.mit.edu/larsb/www/nae_bridge_2016.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In May 2013, the design was shown to be a nested, telescoping piston on an A-frame. The total span of the four [[carbon fiber]]/[[aluminum]] extensible landing legs<ref name="sxn20130729legs">{{cite
== Economics of rocket reuse ==
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==== Grasshopper ====
{{main|SpaceX Grasshopper{{!}}Grasshopper (rocket)}}
Grasshopper, the company's first [[VTVL]] test vehicle, consisted of a [[Falcon 9 v1.0]] first-stage tank, a single [[Merlin 1D|Merlin-1D]] engine, and four permanently attached steel landing legs. It stood {{convert|106|ft}} tall.<ref name="satspot20110926">{{cite news |url=http://satellite.tmcnet.com/topics/satellite/articles/222324-spacex-plans-test-reusable-suborbital-vtvl-rocket-texas.htm |title=SpaceX Plans to Test Reusable Suborbital VTVL Rocket in Texas |newspaper=Satellite Spotlight |last=Mohney |first=Doug |date=September 26, 2011 |access-date=November 21, 2013 |archive-date=August 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804024136/http://satellite.tmcnet.com/topics/satellite/articles/222324-spacex-plans-test-reusable-suborbital-vtvl-rocket-texas.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> SpaceX built a {{Convert|0.5|acre|ha|adj=on}} concrete launch facility at its Rocket Development and Test Facility in [[McGregor, Texas]] to support the Grasshopper flight test program.<ref name="sfn20120709">{{cite news |url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1207/10grasshopper/ |title=Reusable rocket prototype almost ready for first liftoff |newspaper=Spaceflight Now |first=Stephen |last=Clark |date=July 9, 2012 |access-date=July 13, 2012 |quote=SpaceX has constructed a half-acre concrete launch facility in McGregor, and the Grasshopper rocket is already standing on the pad, outfitted with four insect-like silver landing legs. |archive-date=May 21, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521132738/http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1207/10grasshopper/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
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==== Landing attempts on drone ships ====
[[File:First stage of Jason-3 rocket (24423604506).jpg|thumb|First stage of [[Falcon 9 Flight 21]] descending over the floating landing platform, January 17, 2016, immediately prior to a soft touchdown followed by [[deflagration]] of the rocket after a landing leg failed to latch, causing the rocket to tip over.]][[Falcon 9 Flight 21]] launched the [[Jason-3]] satellite on January 17, 2016, and attempted to land on the [[autonomous spaceport drone ship|floating platform]] ''Just Read the Instructions'',<ref name=nbc20160107>{{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/innovation/spacex-plans-drone-ship-rocket-landing-jan-17-launch-n492471 |title=SpaceX Plans Drone Ship Rocket Landing for Jan. 17 Launch |publisher=[[NBC News]] |first=Devin |last=Coldewey |date=January 7, 2016 |access-date=January 8, 2016 |archive-date=December 1, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201134820/http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/innovation/spacex-plans-drone-ship-rocket-landing-jan-17-launch-n492471 |url-status=live }}</ref> located for the first time about {{convert|200|mi|km}} out in the [[Pacific Ocean]].<!-- press conference, Hans Koenigsmann speaking for SpaceX: they are not attempting the landing on the land landing site at VAFB SLC4W because they have not yet received approval from the regulatory authorities; will find a secondary source before adding to the article prose... --><!-- HK: they may try to give video coverage of the landing, but unsure they can do it from over the horizon, satellite links, etc. --> Approximately 9 minutes into the flight, the live video feed from the drone ship went down due to the loss of its lock on the uplink satellite. The vehicle landed smoothly onto the vessel but one of the four landing legs failed to lock properly, reportedly due to ice from the heavy pre-launch [[fog]] preventing a lockout [[collet]] from latching.<ref name=sfn20160118>{{cite web |title=SpaceX narrowly misses booster landing at sea |work=Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/01/18/spacex-narrowly-misses-booster-landing-at-sea/ |date=January 18, 2016 |access-date=January 18, 2016 |first=Stephen |last=Clark |archive-date=January 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160122203126/http://spaceflightnow.com/2016/01/18/spacex-narrowly-misses-booster-landing-at-sea/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Consequently the booster fell over shortly after touchdown and was destroyed in a [[deflagration]] upon impact with the pad.<ref name=gw20160117>{{cite news |last=Boyle |first=Alan |url=http://www.geekwire.com/2016/spacex-launches-jason-3-satellite-then-tries-landing-falcon-9-rocket-at-sea/ |title=SpaceX rocket launches satellite, but tips over during sea landing attempt |work=GeekWire |date=January 17, 2016 |access-date=January 18, 2016 |archive-date=January 30, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130022126/http://www.geekwire.com/2016/spacex-launches-jason-3-satellite-then-tries-landing-falcon-9-rocket-at-sea/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=rud>{{cite web |url=https://www.instagram.com/p/BAqirNbwEc0/ |title=Flight 21 landing and breaking a leg |work=Instagram |first=Elon |last=Musk |author-link=Elon Musk |date=January 17, 2016 |access-date=June 5, 2016 |archive-date=December 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211231212/https://www.instagram.com/p/BAqirNbwEc0/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[Falcon 9 Flight 22|Flight 22]] was carrying a heavy payload of {{convert|5271|kg|sigfig=2}} to [[geostationary transfer orbit]] (GTO). This was heavier than the previously advertised maximum lift capacity to GTO being made possible by going slightly [[subsynchronous orbit|subsynchronous]]. Following delays caused by failure of [[Falcon 9 Flight 19|Flight 19]], SpaceX agreed to provide extra thrust to the [[SES-9]] satellite to take it [[supersynchronous orbit|supersynchronous]].<ref name="sfn20160224">{{cite news |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=February 24, 2016 |title=Falcon 9 rocket to give SES 9 telecom satellite an extra boost |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/2016/02/24/falcon-9-rocket-to-give-ses-9-telecom-satellite-an-extra-boost/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305104120/http://spaceflightnow.com/2016/02/24/falcon-9-rocket-to-give-ses-9-telecom-satellite-an-extra-boost/ |archive-date=March 5, 2016 |access-date=March 7, 2016 |work=Spaceflight Now |quote=''SES’s contract with SpaceX called for the rocket to deploy SES 9 into a "sub-synchronous" transfer orbit with an apogee around 16,155 miles (26,000 kilometers) in altitude. Such an orbit would require SES 9 to consume its own fuel to reach a circular 22,300-mile-high perch, a trek that Halliwell said was supposed to last 93 days. The change [SpaceX offered] in the Falcon 9’s launch profile will put SES 9 into an initial orbit with an apogee approximately 24,419 miles (39,300 kilometers) above Earth, a low point 180 miles (290 kilometers) up, and a track tilted about 28 degrees to the equator.''}}</ref> As a result of these factors, there was little propellant left to execute a full reentry and landing test with normal margins. Consequently the Falcon 9 first stage followed a [[ballistic trajectory]] after separation and re-entered the atmosphere at high velocity, making it less likely to land successfully.<ref name=sxPressKit20160223>{{cite web |url=http://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/spacex_ses9_press_kit_final.pdf |title=SES-9 Mission |work=Press Kit |publisher=SpaceX |date=February 23, 2016 |access-date=February 24, 2016 |quote=This mission is going to a Geostationary Transfer Orbit. Following stage separation, the first stage of the Falcon 9 will attempt an experimental landing on the "Of Course I Still Love You" droneship. Given this mission’s unique GTO profile, a successful landing is not expected. |archive-date=July 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727151524/https://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/spacex_ses9_press_kit_final.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=sfn20160224/> The [[atmospheric re-entry]] and controlled descent were successful despite the higher aerodynamical constraints on the first stage due to extra speed. However the rocket was moving too fast and was destroyed when it collided with the drone ship. SpaceX collected valuable data on the extended flight envelope required to recover boosters from GTO missions.
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==== Block 5 boosters ====
{{main|Falcon 9 Block 5}}
With a streak of 19 successful recovery attempts of the first stage from 2016 through to early 2018, SpaceX has focused on rapid reusability of first stage boosters. Block 3 and Block 4 proved economically feasible to be flown twice, as 11 such boosters have been reflown in 2017 and 2018. [[Falcon 9 Full Thrust Block 5|Block 5]] has been designed with multiple reuses in mind, up to 10 reuses with minimal inspection and up to 100 uses with refurbishment.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seemangal |first=Robin |date=2018-05-04 |title=SpaceX Test-Fires New Falcon 9 Block 5 Rocket Ahead of Maiden Flight (Updated) |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/rockets/a20152543/spacex-test-fire-new-falcon-9-block-5/ |access-date=2024-05-10 |website=Popular Mechanics |language=en-US}}</ref> New aggressive reentry profiles were experimented with expendable Block 3 and Block 4 boosters in early 2018, to test out the limitations on the range of recoverable launch margins that are potential for future Block 5.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-old-gen-falcon-9-ready-rapid-reuse-block-5-rocket/|title=SpaceX expends "old-gen" Falcon 9 to ready for upcoming rapid reuse rocket|website=www.teslarati.com|date=April 3, 2018 |access-date=April 6, 2018|archive-date=April 7, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407053456/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-old-gen-falcon-9-ready-rapid-reuse-block-5-rocket/|url-status=live}}</ref> On 9 May 2021, [[List of Falcon 9 first-stage boosters#B1051|B1051]] became the first booster to be launched and landed for the tenth time, achieving one of SpaceX's milestone goals for reuse.<ref>{{cite web|title=SpaceX flies historic 10th mission of a Falcon 9 as Starlink constellation expands|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/05/historic-10th-falcon9-reflight/|website=NASASpaceFlight|access-date=9 May 2021|date=9 May 2021|archive-date=May 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516121203/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/05/historic-10th-falcon9-reflight/|url-status=live}}</ref> {{As of|
=== Fairing reuse ===
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By April 2021, SpaceX had abandoned the experimental program to attempt recovery of dry payload fairings under [[parachute descent]] in a net on a [[platform supply vessel|fast ship]]. SpaceX decided to operationalize "wet recovery" of fairings on future Falcon 9 flights, having found that they can clean, refurbish, and reuse such fairings more economically.<ref name="ars20210409">{{cite news |last=Berger |first=Eric |date=9 April 2021 |title=Rocket Report: SpaceX abandons catching fairings |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/04/rocket-report-spacex-abandons-catching-fairings-ula-bets-on-upper-stages/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420105824/https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/04/rocket-report-spacex-abandons-catching-fairings-ula-bets-on-upper-stages/ |archive-date=April 20, 2021 |access-date=28 April 2021 |work=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref> SpaceX released ''Miss Tree'' and ''Miss Chief'' from their contracts and purchased two ships for fairing recovery operations as well as for towing and supporting [[Autonomous spaceport drone ship|droneships]] on the east coast. These two ships were named in honour of [[Demo-2]] astronauts [[Doug Hurley]] and [[Bob Behnken]] as ''Doug''<ref>{{Cite web |title=DOUG (Offshore Supply Ship) Registered in USA – Vessel details, Current position and Voyage information – IMO 9529889, MMSI 368485000, Call Sign WDF2598 |url=https://www.marinetraffic.com/en/ais/details/ships/shipid:454774/mmsi:368485000/imo:9529889/vessel:DOUG |access-date=2021-08-25 |website=www.marinetraffic.com |language=en}}</ref> and ''Bob''. The earlier names of the ships Bob and Doug were Ella G and Ingrid respectively. Currently, Doug is operating at Port Canaveral while Bob is at Tampa undergoing construction.
By 26 May 2021, SpaceX had launched 40 flights that reflew at least one previously-flown fairing half, and one fairing had flown on five different flights, having been recovered and cleaned four previous times. As of now, SN152 is the oldest active fairing half still in use, while SN185 is the most flown (32 flights) active fairing half. On the other hand SN168 is the oldest, most-flown (28 flights) passive fairing half.<ref name=sn20210526>{{cite news |title=SpaceX sets Falcon 9 fairing reuse mark with Starlink launch |url=https://spacenews.com/spacex-sets-falcon-9-fairing-reuse-mark-with-starlink-launch/ |work=[[SpaceNews]] |last=Foust|first=Jeff |date=26 May 2021 |access-date=28 May 2021}}</ref>
=== Second-stage reuse ===
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The Starship is planned to replace all existing SpaceX launch and space vehicles after the mid-2020s: [[Falcon 9]], [[Falcon Heavy]] and the [[Dragon spacecraft]], aimed initially at the Earth-orbit [[Space launch market competition|launch market]] but with capability to support [[Beyond Earth orbit|long-duration spaceflight]] in the [[cislunar]] and [[Exploration of Mars|Mars mission]] environments.<ref name=musk20170929>
{{cite AV media | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tdUX3ypDVwI | people=Elon Musk | title=Becoming a Multiplanet Species |date=29 September 2017 |medium=video | ___location=68th annual meeting of the International Astronautical Congress in Adelaide, Australia | publisher=SpaceX | via=YouTube | access-date=8 March 2018}}</ref> Both stages will be fully reusable. The integrated [[
=== Reuse of Dragon capsules ===
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