Plum pudding model: Difference between revisions

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{{use British English|date=October 2024}}

[[File:Thomson atom seven electrons.svg|right|thumb|An atom with seven electrons arranged in a pentagonal dipyramid, as imagined by Thomson in 1905]]

The '''plum pudding model''' wasis thean firstobsolete [[scientific modelling|scientific model]] of the [[atom]] to describe an internal structure. It was first proposed by [[J. J. Thomson]] in 1904 following his discovery of the [[electron]] in 1897, and was rendered obsolete by [[Ernest Rutherford]]'s discovery of the [[atomic nucleus]] in 1911. The model tried to account for two properties of atoms then known: that there are electrons, and that atoms have no net electric charge. Logically there had to be an equal amount of positive charge to balance out the negative charge of the electrons. As Thomson had no idea as to the source of this positive charge, he tentatively proposed that it was everywhere in the atom, and that the atom was spherical. This was the mathematically simplest hypothesis to fit the available evidence, or lack thereof. In such a sphere, the negatively charged electrons would distribute themselves in a more or less even manner throughout the volume, simultaneously repelling each other while being attracted to the positive sphere's center.<ref>{{harvnb|Thomson|1907|p=103}} "In default of exact knowledge of the nature of the way in which positive electricity occurs in the atom, we shall consider a case in which the positive electricity is distributed in the way most amenable to mathematical calculation, i.e., when it occurs as a sphere of uniform density, throughout which the corpuscles are distributed."</ref>

Despite Thomson's efforts, his model couldn't account for [[emission spectra]] and [[Valence (chemistry)|valencies]]. Based on experimental studies of alpha particle scattering (in [[Rutherford scattering experiments|the gold foil experiment]]), [[Ernest Rutherford]] developed an alternative [[Rutherford model|model for the atom]] featuring a compact nucleus where the positive charge is concentrated.

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==Significance==

Thomson's model was the first atomic model to describe an internal structure. Before this, atoms were simply the basic units of weight by which the chemical elements combined, and their only properties were valency and relative weight to hydrogen. ItThe model had no properties which concerned physicists, such as [[electric charge]], [[magnetic moment]], volume, or absolute mass, and because of this some physicists had doubted atoms even existed.

Thomson hypothesized that the quantity, arrangement, and motions of electrons in the atom could explain its physical and chemical properties, such as emission spectra, valencies, reactivity, and ionization. He was on the right track, though his approach was based on classical mechanics and he did not have the insight to incorporate quantized energy into it.

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== Background ==

{{main | History of atomic theory}}

Throughout the 19th century evidence from chemistry and [[statistical mechanics]] accumulated that matter was composed of atoms. The structure of the atom was discussed, and by the end of the century the leading model<ref name="PaisInwardBound" />{{rp|175}} was the [[vortex theory of the atom]], proposed by [[Lord Kelvin|William Thomson]] (later Lord Kelvin) in 1867.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thomson |first=William |year=1869 |title=On Vortex Atoms |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2101269 |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh]] |volume=6 |pages=94–105 |doi=10.1017/S0370164600045430}}</ref> By 1890, J.J. Thomson had his own version called the "nebular atom" hypothesis, in which atoms were composed of immaterial vortices and suggested similarities between the arrangement of vortices and periodic regularity found among the chemical elements.<ref name="Kragh2002">{{Cite book |last=Kragh |first=Helge |title=Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century |date=2002 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0691095523 |edition=Reprint |pages=43–45}}</ref>

Thomson's discovery of the [[electron]] in 1897 changed his views. Thomson called them "corpuscles" ([[particle]]s), but they were more commonly called "electrons", the name [[George Johnstone Stoney|G. J. Stoney]] had coined for the "[[elementary charge|fundamental unit quantity of electricity]]" in 1891.<ref name="O'Hara1975">{{Cite journal |last=O'Hara |first=J. G. |date=March 1975 |title=George Johnstone Stoney, F.R.S., and the Concept of the Electron |journal=[[Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London]] |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=265–276 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1975.0018 |jstor=531468 |s2cid=145353314}}</ref> However even late in 1899, few scientists believed in subatomic particles.<ref name="Whittaker">{{Cite book |last=Whittaker |first=E. T. |title=A history of the theories of aether & electricity |date=1989 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=978-0-486-26126-3 |___location=New York}}</ref>{{rp|I:365}}

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In a paper titled ''Cathode Rays'',{{sfn|Thomson|1897}} Thomson demonstrated that [[cathode rays]] are not light but made of negatively charged particles which he called ''corpuscles''. He observed that cathode rays can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields, which does not happen with light rays. In a few paragraphs near the end of this long paper Thomson discusses the possibility that atoms were made of these ''corpuscles'', calling them ''primordial atoms''. Thomson believed that the intense electric field around the cathode caused the surrounding gas molecules to split up into their component ''corpuscles'', thereby generating cathode rays. Thomson thus showed evidence that atoms were divisible, though he did not attempt to describe their structure at this point.

Thomson notes that he was not the first scientist to propose that atoms are divisible, making reference to [[William Prout]] who in 1815 found that the atomic weights of various elements were multiples of hydrogen's atomic weight and hypothesised that all atoms were made of hydrogen atoms fused together.<ref name=Kragh2010>Helge Kragh (Oct. 2010). [https://css.au.dk/fileadmin/reposs/reposs-010.pdf Before Bohr: Theories of atomic structure 1850-1913]. RePoSS: Research Publications on Science Studies 10. Aarhus: Centre for Science Studies, University of Aarhus.</ref> [[Prout's hypothesis]] was dismissed by chemists when by the 1830s it was found that some elements seemed to have a non-integer atomic weight—e.g. [[chlorine]] has an atomic weight of about 35.45. But the idea continued to intrigue scientists. The discrepancies were eventually explained with the discovery of [[isotopes]] in 1912.

A few months after Thomson's paper appeared, [[George Francis FitzGerald|George FitzGerald]] suggested that the corpuscle identified by Thomson from cathode rays and proposed as parts of an atom was a "free electron", as described by physicist [[Joseph Larmor]] and [[Hendrik Lorentz]]. While Thomson did not adopt the terminology, the connection convinced other scientists that cathode rays were particles, an important step in their eventual acceptance of an atomic model based on sub-atomic particles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Falconer |first=Isobel |date=July 1987 |title=Corpuscles, Electrons and Cathode Rays: J.J. Thomson and the 'Discovery of the Electron' |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007087400023955/type/journal_article |journal=The British Journal for the History of Science |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=241–276 |doi=10.1017/S0007087400023955 |issn=0007-0874|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In 1899 Thomson reiterated his atomic model in a paper that showed that negative electricity created by ultraviolet light landing on a metal (known now as the [[photoelectric effect]]) has the same [[mass-to-charge ratio]] as cathode rays; then he applied his previous method for determining the charge on ions to the negative electric particles created by ultraviolet light.<ref name="PaisInwardBound">{{Cite book |last=Pais |first=Abraham |title=Inward bound: of matter and forces in the physical world |date=2002 |publisher=Clarendon Press [u.a.] |isbn=978-0-19-851997-3 |edition=Reprint |___location=Oxford}}</ref>{{rp|86}} He estimated that the electron's mass was 0.0014 times that of the hydrogen ion (as a fraction: {{sfrac|1|714}}).<ref name=Thomson1899>{{Cite journal |last=J. J. Thomson |year=1899 |title=On the Masses of the Ions in Gases at Low Pressures. |url=https://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Thomson-1899.html |journal=Philosophical Magazine |series=5 |volume=48 |pages=547–567 |number=295}}<br />"...the magnitude of this negative charge is about 6 × 10⁻¹⁰ electrostatic units, and is equal to the positive charge carried by the hydrogen atom in the electrolysis of solutions. [...] In gases at low pressures these units of negative electric charge are always associated with carriers of a definite mass. This mass is exceedingly small, being only about 1.4 × 10⁻³ of that of the hydrogen ion, the smallest mass hitherto recognized as capable of a separate existence. The production of negative electrification thus involves the splitting up of an atom, as from a collection of atoms something is detached whose mass is less than that of a single atom."</ref> In the conclusion of this paper he writes:<ref name=Kragh2010/>

{{blockquote|I regard the atom as containing a large number of smaller bodies which I shall call corpuscles; these corpuscles are equal to each other; the mass of a corpuscle is the mass of the negative ion in a gas at low pressure, i.e. about 3 × 10⁻²⁶ of a gramme. In the normal atom, this assemblage of corpuscles forms a system which is electrically neutral. The negative effect is balanced by something which causes the space through which the corpuscles are spread to act as if it had a charge of positive electricity equal in amount to the sum of the negative charges on the corpuscles.}}

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He then gives a detailed mechanical analysis of such a system, distributing the electrons uniformly around a ring. The attraction of the positive electrification is balanced by the mutual repulsion of the electrons. His analysis focuses on stability, looking for cases where small changes in position are countered by restoring forces.

After discussing his many formulae for stability he turned to analysing patterns in the number of electrons in various concentric rings of stable configurations. These regular patterns Thomson argued are analogous to the [[periodic law]] of chemistry behind the structure of the [[periodic table]]. This concept, that a model based on subatomic particles could account for chemical trends, encouraged interest in Thomson's model and influenced future work even if the details Thomson's electron assignments turned out to be incorrect.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kragh |first=Helge |date=2001 |title=The first subatomic explanations of the periodic system |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1023/A:1011448410646 |journal=Foundations of Chemistry |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=129–143 |doi=10.1023/A:1011448410646|url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{rp|135}}

Thomson at this point believed that all the mass of the atom was carried by the electrons.<ref>{{harvnb|Thomson|1904}}: "We suppose that the mass of an atom is the sum of the masses of the corpuscles it contains, so that the atomic weight of an element is measured by the number of corpuscles in its atom."</ref> This would mean that even a small atom would have to contain thousands of electrons, and the positive electrification that encapsulated them was without mass.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baily |first=C. |date=January 2013 |title=Early atomic models – from mechanical to quantum (1904–1913) |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1140/epjh/e2012-30009-7 |journal=The European Physical Journal H |language=en |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1140/epjh/e2012-30009-7 |arxiv=1208.5262 |bibcode=2013EPJH...38....1B |issn=2102-6459}}</ref>

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For instance, he observed that while five pins would arrange themselves in a stable pentagon around the centre, six pins could not form a stable hexagon. Instead, one pin would move to the centre and the other five would form a pentagon around the centre pin, and this arrangement was stable. As he added more pins, they would arrange themselves in concentric rings around the centre.

The experiment functioned in two dimensions instead of three, but Thomson inferred the electrons in the atom arranged themselves in concentric shells and thethey could move within these shells but did not move from one shell to another them except when electrons were added or subtracted from the atom.

{{Clear}}

===1906 Estimating electrons per atom===

Before 1906 Thomson considered the atomic weight to be due to the mass of the electrons (which he continued to call "corpuscles"). Based on his own estimates of the electron mass, an atom would need tens of thousands electrons to account for the mass. In 1906 he used three different methods, X-ray scattering, beta ray absorption, or optical properties of gases, to estimate that "number of corpuscles is not greatly different from the atomic weight".<ref name=Thomson1906>{{Cite journal |last=Thomson |first=J.J. |date=June 1906 |title=LXX. On the number of corpuscles in an atom |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786440609463496 |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |language=en |volume=11 |issue=66 |pages=769–781 |doi=10.1080/14786440609463496 |issn=1941-5982|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=Heilbron1968>{{Cite journal |author=John L. Heilbron |date=1968 |title=The Scattering of α and β Particles and Rutherford's Atom |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133273 |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=247–307 |doi=10.1007/BF00411591 |jstor=41133273 |issn=0003-9519|url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{rp|q=one of the most important papers on atomic structure ever written}} This reduced the number of electrons to tens or at most a couple of hundred and that in turn meant that the positive sphere in Thomson's model contained most of the mass of the atom. This meant that Thomson's mechanical stability work from 1904 and the comparison to the periodic table were no longer valid.<ref name="PaisInwardBound" />{{rp|186}} Moreover, the alpha particle, so important to the next advance in atomic theory by Rutherford, would no longer be viewed as an atom containing thousands of electrons.<ref name=Heilbron1968/>{{rp|269}}

In 1907, Thomson published ''The Corpuscular Theory of Matter''{{sfn|Thomson|1907}} which reviewed his ideas on the atom's structure and proposed further avenues of research.

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Another innovation in Thomson's 1910 paper was that he modelled how an atom might deflect an incoming [[beta particle]] if the positive charge of the atom existed in discrete units of equal but arbitrary size, spread evenly throughout the atom, separated by empty space, with each unit having a positive charge equal to the electron's negative charge.<ref>Thomson (1910): "The amount of deflection due to (2) will depend upon whether the positive electricity is uniformly distributed through the atom, or whether it is supposed to be divided into equal units, each occupying a finite volume probably much greater than the volume occupied by a corpuscle."</ref> Thomson therefore came close to deducing the existence of the [[proton]], which was something Rutherford eventually did. In Rutherford's model of the atom, the protons are clustered in a very small nucleus, but in Thomson's alternative model, the positive units were spread throughout the atom.

== Thomson's 1910 beta scattering model==

In his 1910 paper "On the Scattering of rapidly moving Electrified Particles", Thomson presented equations that modelled how [[beta particle]]s scatter in a collision with an atom.<ref name=ThomsonScattering1910>{{cite journal |author=J. J. Thomson |year=1910 |title=On the Scattering of rapidly moving Electrified Particles |journal=Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society |volume=15 |pages=465–471 |url=https://archive.org/details/proceedingsofcam15190810camb/page/464/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name=Heilbron1968/>{{rp|277}} His work was based on beta scattering studies by [[James Crowther]].

===DeflectionPartial deflection by the positive sphere===

Thomson typically assumed the positive charge in the atom was uniformly distributed throughout its volume, encapsulating the electrons. In his 1910 paper, Thomson presented the following equation which isolated the effect of this positive sphere:<ref name=ThomsonScattering1910/><ref name=Heilbron1968/>{{rp|278}}

<math display="block">\bar\theta_2 = \frac{\pi}{4} \cdot \frac{k q_eq_\text{e} q_gq_\text{g}}{m v^2 R}</math>

where ''k'' is the [[Coulomb constant]], ''q''_e is the charge of the beta particle, ''q''_g is the charge of the positive sphere, ''m'' is the mass of the beta particle, and ''R'' is the radius of the sphere. Because the atom is many thousands of times heavier than the beta particle, no correction for recoil is needed.

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Inside a sphere of uniformly distributed positive charge the force exerted on the beta particle at any point along its path through the sphere would be directed along the radius {{mvar |r}} with magnitude:<ref>{{cite web | url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/elesph.html | title=Electric Field, Spherical Geometry }}</ref><ref name=BeiserPerspectives>Beiser (1969). [https://archive.org/details/perspectivesofmo0000arth/page/102/mode/2up ''Perspectives of Modern Physics''], p. 109</ref>{{rp|106}}

<math display="block">F = \frac{k q_eq_\text{e} q_gq_\text{g}}{r^2} \cdot \frac{r^3}{R^3}</math>

The component of force perpendicular to the trajectory and thus deflecting the path of the particle would be:

<math display="block">F_yF_\text{y} = \frac{k q_eq_\text{e} q_gq_\text{g}}{r^2} \cdot \frac{r^3}{R^3} \cdot \cos\varphi = \frac{b k q_eq_\text{e} q_gq_\text{g}}{R^3}</math>

The lateral change in momentum ''p''_y is therefore

<math display="block">\Delta p_yp_\text{y} = F_yF_\text{y} t =\frac{b k q_eq_\text{e} q_gq_\text{g}}{R^3} \cdot \frac{L}{v}</math>

The resulting angular deflection, <math>\theta_2</math>, is given by

<math display="block">\tan\theta_2 = \frac{\Delta p_yp_\text{y}}{p_xp_\text{x}} = \frac{b k q_eq_\text{e} q_gq_\text{g}}{R^3} \cdot \frac{L}{v} \cdot \frac{1}{mv}</math>

where ''p''_x is the average horizontal momentum taken to be equal to the incoming momentum. Since we already know the deflection is very small, we can treat <math>\tan\theta_2</math> as being equal to <math>\theta_2</math>.

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To find the average deflection angle <math>\bar\theta_2</math>, the angle for each value of ''b'' and the corresponding ''L'' are added across the face sphere, then divided by the cross-section area. <math>L=2\sqrt{R^2 -b^2}</math> per [[Pythagorean theorem]].<ref name=Heilbron1968/>{{rp|278}}

<math display="block">\bar\theta_2 = \frac{1}{\pi R^2} \int_0^R \frac{b k q_eq_\text{e} q_gq_\text{g}}{R^3} \cdot \frac{2\sqrt{R^2 - b^2}}{v} \cdot \frac{1}{mv} \cdot 2\pi b \cdot \mathrm{d}b</math>

<math display="block">= \frac{\pi}{4} \cdot \frac{k q_eq_\text{e} q_gq_\text{g}}{mv^2R}</math>

This matches Thomson's formula in his 1910 paper.

===DeflectionPartial deflection by the electrons===

Thomson modelled the collisions between a beta particle and the electrons of an atom by calculating the deflection of one collision then multiplying by a factor for the number of collisions as the particle crosses the atom.

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For the electrons within an arbitrary distance ''s'' of the beta particle's path, their mean distance will be {{sfrac|''s''|2}}. Therefore, the average deflection per electron will be

<math display="block">2 \arctan \frac{k q_eq_\text{e} q_eq_\text{e}}{mv^2 \tfrac{s}{2}} \approx \frac{4 k q_eq_\text{e} q_eq_\text{e}}{m v^2 s}</math>

where ''q''_e is the [[elementary charge]], ''k'' is the [[Coulomb constant]], ''m'' and ''v'' are the mass and velocity of the beta particle.

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The net deflection caused by all the electrons within this arbitrary cylinder of effect around the beta particle's path is

<math display="block">\theta_1 = \frac{4k q_eq_\text{e} q_eq_\text{e}}{mv^2 s} \cdot \sqrt{N_0 \pi s^2 L}</math>

where ''N''₀ is the number of electrons per unit volume and <math>\pi s^2 L</math> is the volume of this cylinder.

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We can now replace <math>\sqrt{L}</math> in the equation for <math>\theta_1</math> to obtain the mean deflection <math>\bar{\theta}_1</math>:

<math display="block">\bar{\theta}_1 = \frac{4k q_eq_\text{e} q_eq_\text{e}}{mv^2 s} \cdot \sqrt{N_0 \pi s^2} \cdot \frac{4}{5} \sqrt{2R}</math>

<math display="block">= \frac{16}{5} \cdot \frac{k q_eq_\text{e} q_eq_\text{e}}{m v^2} \cdot \frac{1}{R} \cdot \sqrt{\frac{3N}{2}}</math>

where ''N'' is the number of electrons in the atom, equal to <math>N_0 \tfrac{4}{3} \pi R^3</math>.

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In this concept, the average scattering angle of the beta particle is given by:

<math display="block">\bar{\theta}_2 = \frac{16}{5} \cdot \frac{k q_eq_\text{e} q_eq_\text{e}}{m v^2} \cdot \frac{1}{R} \cdot \sqrt{\frac{3N}{2}} \sqrt{1 - \left (1 - \frac{\pi}{8} \right ) \sqrt{\sigma}}</math>

where ''σ'' is the ratio of the volume occupied by the positive charge to the volume of the whole atom. Thomson did not explain how he arrived at this equation.

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==Mathematical Thomson problem==

The [[Thomson problem]] in mathematics seeks the optimal distribution of equal point charges on the surface of a sphere. Unlike the original Thomson atomic model, the sphere in this purely mathematical model does not have a charge, and this causes all the point charges to move to the surface of the sphere by their mutual repulsion. There is still no general solution to Thomson's original problem of how electrons arrange themselves within a sphere of positive charge.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Levin |first1=Y. |last2=Arenzon |first2=J. J. |year=2003 |title=Why charges go to the Surface: A generalized Thomson Problem |journal=Europhys. Lett. |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=415–418 |arxiv=cond-mat/0302524 |bibcode=2003EL.....63..415L |doi=10.1209/epl/i2003-00546-1 |s2cid=250764497}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roth |first=J. |date=2007-10-24 |title=Description of a highly symmetric polytope observed in Thomson's problem of charges on a hypersphere |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevE.76.047702 |journal=Physical Review E |language=en |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=047702 |bibcode=2007PhRvE..76d7702R |doi=10.1103/PhysRevE.76.047702 |issn=1539-3755 |pmid=17995142 |quote=Although Thomson's model has been outdated for a long time by quantum mechanics, his problem of placing charges on a sphere is still noteworthy.|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Origin of the nickname==

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{{blockquote|While the negative electricity is concentrated on the extremely small corpuscle, the positive electricity is distributed throughout a considerable volume. An atom would thus consist of minute specks, the negative corpuscles, swimming about in a sphere of positive electrification, like raisins in a parsimonious plum-pudding, units of negative electricity being attracted toward the centre, while at the same time repelling each other.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=25 August 1906 |title=What is Matter? |url=https://archive.org/details/b19974760M1456/page/328/mode/2up |journal=The Chemist and Druggist |volume=69 |issue=8 |pages=329–330}}</ref>}}

The analogy was never used by Thomson nor his colleagues. It seems to have been acoined conceit ofby popular science writers to make the model easier to understand for the layman.<ref name=HonGoldstein2013/>

==References==