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'''Tandem language learning''' is a method of [[language learning]] based on mutual [[language exchange]] between tandem partners (ideally each learner is a native speaker in the language the proponent wants to learn). Many [[language school]]s in the world, organised as TANDEM International,<ref name="tandem-schools1">{{cite web|url=http://www.tandem-schools.com|title=Tandem International e.V., the Tandem schools group|last=|first=|date=|website=tandem-schools.com|accessdate=2016-01-20}}</ref> as well as many universities implement this approach.

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'''Tandem language learning''' is an approach to [[language acquisition]] that involves reciprocal [[language exchange]] between tandem partners. In this method, each learner ideally serves as a native speaker of the language the other person intends to learn. Tandem language learning deviates from traditional pedagogical practices by eliminating the teacher-student model. Numerous [[Language school|language schools]] worldwide, including those affiliated with TANDEM International,<ref name="tandem-schools1">{{cite web|url=http://www.tandem-schools.com|title=Tandem International e.V., the Tandem schools group|website=tandem-schools.com|access-date=2016-01-20}}</ref> as well as several universities, incorporate this approach into their language programs.

==Background==

==General background==

In Tandem Languagelanguage Learninglearning bothencompasses partnersvarious canmethods meetof ininstruction. personThe most prevalent form involves (face-to-face Tandem)meetings orbetween learn by e-mail, phone or other mediaparticipants (eTandem,referred alsoto calledas Distanceface-to-face Tandemtandem),. placingWith emphasisthe onadvent culturalof integrationcommunication astechnology part ofin the language-learning1990s, process.etandem Learning(also isknown supportedas indistance differenttandem) waysemerged, forfacilitating instance,language viapractice worksheets,through textbooksemail orcorrespondence simplyand informalwritten conversationcommunication. ThereTele-collaboration areemphasizes distinctcultural usesintegration ofand theintercultural Tandemunderstanding methodas whichintegral promotecomponents independentof learninglanguage e.glearning. Tandem Partnershipsexchanges (twoare people, supportedcharacterized by counsellors)reciprocal autonomy,{{sfn|Cappellini|2016}} andwith Binationalparticipants Tandemengaging Coursesin (formutual groups, organised bylanguage moderators)learning. The classic styleTime is thatequally wheredivided partnersto equallyensure sharea thefair availabledistribution timeof during thelanguage exchange.{{sfn|Cappellini|2016}} For exampleinstance, a Portuguese speaker and a German speaker canmay talkconverse in German for half an hour in German and then switch to Portuguese for the remaining half an hour in Portuguese. In this way, through language exchangeThrough partnerships with native speakers, and extraexposure to social and cultural experiences, participants become fully immersed in the target language and culture. Learning is supported through various means, such as worksheets, textbooks, or informal conversations. The onlytandem conditionmethod serves different purposes, including self-directed tandem partnerships (involving two individuals supported by counselors) and binational tandem courses (designed for groups and facilitated by moderators). The prerequisite for participationparticipating in self-directed Tandem is to be at a lower intermediate level of language proficiency (Lowerlower B1 Thresholdthreshold). The can-do statements outlined in the Common European Framework of ReferencesReference for Languages ( CEFR)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/cadre1_en.asp |title=Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (CEFR) |website=Coe.int |date=2014-03-29 |accessdateaccess-date=2016-01-20}}</ref>) Can-Do statements provide a clear description of language ability at the ThresholdB1 level (B1)threshold<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eur.nl/english/ltc/alumni/cefr/b1/ |title=CEFR level B1 (Intermediate) |website=Eur.nl |access-date= |accessdate=2016-01-20}}</ref> in several European languages.

==Tandem historyHistory==

The concept of "Languagelanguage learning by exchange" or the Tandem"tandem Approachapproach" isencompasses basedvarious on variousteaching systems of teachingfor exchange students abroad, such as:including partner learning, "peer teaching", tutoring models, and "Zweierschaften" (Steinig) or 'one-on-one discipleship'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linguee.com/german-english/translation/zweierschaft.html |title=zweierschaft - English translation – Linguee |website=Linguee.com |access-date= |accessdate=2016-01-20}}</ref>

The followingHere are some of the most importantkey highlightspoints:<ref>{{cite web|title = TANDEM Fundazioa: history|url = http://tandemcity.info/general/en_history.htm|website = tandemcity.info|accessdateaccess-date = 2015-10-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1CpgcAZWT5UC&pg=PA136&dq=history+tandem+schmelter#v=onepage&q&fpg=truePA136|title = Schmelter, Selbstgesteuertes oder potenziell expansives Fremdsprachenlernen im Tandem, Gunter Narr Verlag Tübingen|date=2004|pages=134–149|accessdateaccess-date =2016-01-20 |website =Books.google.es|isbn = 9783823361039|last1 = Schmelter|first1 = Lars| publisher=Gunter Narr Verlag }}</ref>

* At the beginning of the 19th century in England, [[Joseph Lancaster]] and [[Andrew Bell (educationalist)|Andrew Bell]] instituted the "mutual system" which supplemented large parts of the teacher’s activity at school with pupils’ mutual help. Peter Petersen (German educationalist, 1884–1952) developed something similar in the "[[Jenaplan schools]]", and, from 1960 on, similar tutoring models began to appear in the USA.

* The "Tandem" concept for two people learning the same language appeared first in 1971 in connection with the "audio-visual method" of Wambach, and from there it was transferred to binational German-French youth meetings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dfjw.org/english-version |title=Service > The Franco-German Youth Office (FGYO) &#124; Deutsch-Französisches Jugendwerk |language=de |website=Dfjw.org |date= |accessdate=2016-01-20}}</ref>

* Klaus Lieb-Harkort and Nükhet Cimilli transferred the model to their work with immigrants in the German-Turkish area, in Munich. Courses followed in Bremen, Frankfurt and Zürich.

* In 1979, this inspired Jürgen Wolff to develop the Tandem learning partner mediation, initially for Spanish and German. In 1982 a similar course programme designed by Wolff and his colleagues in Madrid later became the basis for the TANDEM network, later established as the TANDEM schools network.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tandem-schools.com/network/ |title=TANDEM: Network |website=tandem-schools.com |date= |accessdate=2016-01-20}}</ref>

* From 1983, the TANDEM model is adopted as an alternative way of language learning, whose basic elements of language courses abroad, youth exchange, cultural tours, class correspondence and similar cross-border activities are replicated in selective schools throughout Europe.

* The network cooperates with various educational institutions including the E-Tandem Network,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slf.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/ |title=Tandem Server Bochum - language learning exchange partnerships - eTandem |website=Slf.ruhr-uni-bochum.de |date= |accessdate=2016-01-20}}</ref> founded in 1992, and renamed the International E-Mail Tandem Network in 1993.

* 'TANDEM Fundazioa<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tandemcity.info/general/en_history.htm |title=TANDEM Fundazioa: history |website=Tandemcity.info |date= |accessdate=2016-01-20}}</ref> was founded in 1994 for the development of scientific cooperation and educational and advanced training with their head office in Donostia/San Sebastian, Spain.

* The majority of the schools under the TANDEM Network established the association 'TANDEM International'<ref name="tandem-schools1"/> with headquarters in Bremen, Germany. Since March 2014, TANDEM International has been the owner of the brand 'TANDEM'.

In the early 19th century, [[Joseph Lancaster]] and [[Andrew Bell (educationalist)|Andrew Bell]] introduced the "mutual system" in England, which involved students assisting each other in school, complementing the teacher's role. Peter Petersen, a German educationalist, developed a similar approach in the "[[Jenaplan schools]]," and tutoring models inspired by this concept emerged in the USA from the 1960s onwards.

==Opportunities for application==

Tandem is an approach that can benefit all ages, which can be implemented in different educational settings, but perhaps is best appreciated by language students with a lower intermediate proficiency or above. It can take place in the country of one course group, in the country of the other group, together in a third ___location, or over the Internet.

The "tandem" concept, where two individuals learn the same language together, first appeared in 1971 in connection with Wambach's "audio-visual method." It was later applied to binational German-French youth meetings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dfjw.org/english-version |title=Service > The Franco-German Youth Office (FGYO) &#124; Deutsch-Französisches Jugendwerk |language=de |website=Dfjw.org |access-date=2016-01-20}}</ref>

Tandem unites many aims under one roof:

* general language Tandem,

* Tandem focused on cultural exchange,

* Tandem for professional purposes,

* cross-cultural understanding Tandem,

* multilingual ‘Babylonia Tandem’,

* cross-border 'Mugaz Gain'<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tandemcity.info/euskara/ca24_mugaz-gain.htm |title=TANDEM Fundazioa: Mugaz Gain proyecto cultural transfronterizo |website=Tandemcity.info |date= |accessdate=2016-01-20}}</ref> and

* eTandem on the Internet

<br>

And offers self-directed learning with flexibility of content: conversation, narrative, reading, professional activities such as phone calls, interpretation, translation, as well as leisure activities, intercultural differences, etc. Tandem has developed from a language-learning method to an educational movement, as evidenced by the sources cited.

Klaus Lieb-Harkort and Nükhet Cimilli introduced this model in their work with immigrants in the German-Turkish area of Munich. Similar courses were subsequently offered in Bremen, Frankfurt, and Zürich.

==Positive effects==

'''Improvement in language skills'''

In 1979, Jürgen Wolff developed the tandem learning partner mediation for Spanish and German. This course program, along with one developed by Wolff and colleagues in Madrid, formed the foundation of the TANDEM network, which later became the TANDEM schools network.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tandem-schools.com/network/ |title=TANDEM: Network |website=tandem-schools.com |access-date=2016-01-20}}</ref>

At first, professional discussion primarily centred round the question of the effectiveness of Tandem in comparison with traditional language teaching methodologies. This initiated an investigation carried out in 1983 at the Madrid Goethe-Institute, in which Tandem pairs, a Tandem course and teacher-steered phases were connected with each other and the linguistic progress was compared to a control group, who were also preparing for the '[[TestDaF-Institut|Zertifikat DaF]]'. Results showed that the Tandem participants got better results in listening comprehension and speaking skills while they were less successful in reading and writing, even if their performance in the certificate as a whole was just as good as the control group. Another advantage was mutual mistake correction, which was fostered by increased language intake.

Since 1983, the TANDEM model has been adopted as an alternative language learning method, with elements of language courses abroad, youth exchange programs, cultural tours, class correspondence, and other cross-border activities replicated in selective schools across Europe.

'''Development of intercultural competence'''

The TANDEM network collaborates with various educational institutions, including the E-Tandem Network,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slf.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/ |title=Tandem Server Bochum - language learning exchange partnerships - eTandem |website=Slf.ruhr-uni-bochum.de |access-date=2016-01-20}}</ref> which was founded in 1992 and later renamed the International E-Mail Tandem Network in 1993.

Not only is Tandem concerned with language comprehension and learning, but equally with cultural understanding and knowledge. Accordingly, a critical analysis of its competence must also examine this second ‘leg’. In fact, it turns out that Tandem aids a change of perspective, with comparison of one’s own and foreign points of view. This is also very helpful during translator training. Moreover, native speakers report an increase of awareness about their own language in the course of the Tandem. Therefore, it seems to be suitable as a ‘confidence booster’ in learning contexts.

TANDEM Fundazioa,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tandemcity.info/general/en_history.htm |title=TANDEM Fundazioa: history |website=Tandemcity.info |access-date=2016-01-20}}</ref> headquartered in Donostia/San Sebastian, Spain, was established in 1994 to promote scientific cooperation, education, and advanced training.

== Getting started with Tandem learning ==

'''Considerations for 121 Tandem'''

In 2016, Tripod Technology GmbH obtained a license from TANDEM Fundazioa to create the [[Transaction Application Language|Tandem app]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tandemcity.info/history-tandem/|title=History of Tandem|website=Tandem language exchange - Tandem Fundazioa|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-02-25}}</ref>

With regard to the requirements and quality of the input, it is essential to give the following basic tools during the practical introduction to Tandem:

The majority of schools affiliated with the TANDEM Network formed the association 'TANDEM International,"<ref name="tandem-schools1" /> with its headquarters in Bremen, Germany. Since March 2014, TANDEM International has owned the 'TANDEM' brand.

• [[meta-communication]] formulas in the foreign language, for the learner's role, and

==Benefits==

• the most important explanation techniques in the first language, for the learning assistant's role.

===Improvement in language skill===

Initially, there was a significant focus on the effectiveness of tandem language learning compared to traditional teaching methods. To investigate this, a study was conducted in 1983 at the Madrid Goethe-Institute. Tandem pairs, a tandem course, and teacher-guided phases were interconnected, and the linguistic progress of the participants was compared to that of a control group who were also preparing for the '[[TestDaF-Institut|Zertifikat DaF]]." The results indicated that the tandem participants demonstrated better listening comprehension and speaking skills, although they were less successful in reading and writing. Overall, their performance in the certification was on par with the control group. Another benefit observed was the mutual correction of mistakes, which was facilitated by increased exposure to the language.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

'''Considerations for Group Tandem'''

===Development of intercultural competence===

Mediation with large numbers of participants, "cocktail mediation", in which many people form partnerships after an introduction to Tandem, has proved as effective as mediation via questionnaires and images. It can be recommended as a good way of finding learning partners, on the condition that for the remaining students the possibility of questionnaire mediation be made known before starting.

Tandem language learning encompasses not only language comprehension and learning but also cultural understanding and knowledge. Consequently, when analyzing the competence component, it is essential to consider this aspect as well. Tandem learning facilitates a change in perspective by allowing participants to compare their own viewpoints with those of others. Through its natural exposure to the native speaker's culture, Tandem provides a relaxed and inviting environment for engagement. The autonomous nature of language exchange enables participants to experience different worldviews, fostering attitudes of respect, openness, curiosity, and discovery. This aspect is particularly beneficial in translator training. Additionally, native speakers also report an increased awareness of their own language throughout the tandem process, making it a valuable confidence booster in learning contexts.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

'''Criteria for ‘good’ Tandems'''

== Cormier Method ==

In another investigation, Tandem partners in Bolzano and Merano who had been learning for more than one year together, and can be seen accordingly as experts, were questioned about their experiences in order to infer criteria for ‘good’ Tandems. The results showed (in order of frequency, multiple answers possible):

The Cormier method, developed by Helene Cormier, a language teacher at the ''Club d'échange linguistique de Montréal'' (CELM), is an instructional approach that promotes in-tandem learning among small groups of learners with different native languages.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Learning culture and language through ICTs: methods for enhanced instruction|date=2009|publisher=Information Science Reference |editor-last1=Chang |editor-first1=Maiga |editor-last2=Kuo |editor-first2=Chen-Wo |isbn=9781605661667 |___location=Hershey PA |oclc=430984238 }}</ref> The method focuses on engaging participants in conversations aimed at strengthening listening, comprehension, vocabulary, and pronunciation skills.

* human understanding/sympathy

* common interests

* time availability

* punctuality/reliability

* consistency

* common aims

* initial support at the beginning of the experience

Several series of tandem handbooks have been published in many languages as a result of the [[European Union]] funded projects: Tandem and eTandem Handbooks and Teacher Guides<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slf.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/Tandem/etandem/guides-en.html |title=eTandem Europa - Tandem handbooks and teacher guides - English |website=Slf.ruhr-uni-bochum.de |date= |accessdate=2016-01-20}}</ref>

During the language exchange, participants have the opportunity to interact with native speakers through text, voice, and video chat. Each session typically lasts around one hour, with participants speaking in one language for thirty minutes and then switching to the other language for the remaining thirty minutes. This experience allows learners to gain insights into their peers' cultures while using the target language appropriately.

*[[LINGUA]] project "International E-Mail Tandem Network" (1994–1996)

*[[Open and Distance Learning]] project "Telematics for Autonomous and Intercultural Tandem Learning" (1996–1999).

*[[LINGUA-D]] project "Tandem Language Learning Partnerships for Schools" (1998–2000)

To conduct effective sessions using the Cormier method, the following recommendations should be considered:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/site/mullais/Home/misc/cormier-method|title=Cormier method - mullais|website=sites.google.com|access-date=2018-02-14 |first=Mullaiselvan |last=Mohan}}</ref>

== From tandem language learning to telecollaboration ==

# Properly utilizing a timer to manage time allocation.

In order to compete in our digitally advanced world, the acquisition of 21st Century skills,<ref>{{cite web|author=Liberty Concepts |url=http://edglossary.org/21st-century-skills/ |title=21st Century Skills Definition - The Glossary of Education Reform |website=Edglossary.org |date=2014-06-20 |accessdate=2016-01-20}}</ref> or Global skills has taken priority in the classroom. And as can be seen from its history, Tandem Language Learning has metamorphosed over time, reflecting these changes in our attitudes to learning. Today, with a focus on [[intercultural competence]], a key global skill, Tandem Language Learning has been also called Online Intercultural Exchange (OIE) (O'Dowd, 2007),<ref>{{Cite book|title = Online intercultural exchange: An introduction for foreign language teachers.|last = O'Dowd|first = R.|publisher = Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.|year = 2007|isbn = |___location = |pages = }}</ref> Internet-mediated Intercultural Foreign Language Education (ICFLE) and Telecollaboration. Such exchanges, despite being held at distance, give participants access to different cultures and beliefs with an authentic audience, boosting student engagement.

# Taking responsibility for one's own learning when speaking in a second language

# Being sensitive to the needs of partners when speaking in one's own language

# Focusing on communication rather than constantly correcting grammar.

# Being considerate of others

Advantages of the Cormier method include the opportunity for focused practice in small groups, pre-designed lesson plans and engaging activities to enhance motivation, real-time communication with native speakers, and the ability to access sessions from anywhere with an internet connection. A virtual timer helps manage and allocate practice time for each participant.

'''Benefits of virtual language exchanges'''

However, there are some disadvantages to consider. The method is more suitable for intermediate and advanced learners, as native speakers without teaching backgrounds may struggle to assist beginners. Additionally, participants from different educational backgrounds and levels of knowledge may encounter communication challenges in communication. Accessibility can also be an issue in certain countries.

Indeed, benefits of virtual exchanges<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fltmag.com/virtual-exchanges-in-the-foreign-language-classroom/ |title=Virtual Exchanges in the Foreign Language Classroom |publisher=The Fltmag |date=2013-06-20 |accessdate=2016-01-20}}</ref> are seen to include

* development of intercultural competence

* improvement of foreign language skills to communicate with native speakers

* increase in student motivation

* student-centred learning

'''Drawbacks of Virtual Language Exchanges'''

* possible lack of accessibility due to time difference

* communication gaps due to social and cultural differences and expectations between groups.

* this, in turn, may have a negative effect on motivation.

'''Key Pedagogical Implications for Successful Telecollaborative Activities (O'Dowd, 2013)'''<ref name="O'Dowd2013">{{cite book|title = Telecollaboration and CALL. In Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warshauer, M. (Eds.) Contemporary computer-assisted language learning.|last = O'Dowd|first = R.|publisher = London: Bloomsbury Academic.|year = 2013|isbn = |url=http://site.ebrary.com/lib/uon/detail.action?docID=10632566|pages= 123–140}}</ref>

It's important to note that while the Cormier method is beneficial for practice, it should not be relied upon as the sole source of language learning. Instead, it should be seen as a supplementary tool to help learners improve their language skills.

i. time for students to reflect on the experience (during and after the activity)

The Cormier method has demonstrated success, particularly when utilizing tools like Skype. Implementing this method is relatively straightforward, although the discussed drawbacks should be taken into account. As new technologies continue to emerge, different and improved approaches to tandem learning may further enhance its effectiveness. Alternative digital tools such as Google Hangouts, Viber, ooVoo, WeChat, and others can broaden access and provide additional opportunities for e-tandem learning and telecollaboration, leading to continued growth and advancement in language learning.

ii. adequate resources

== Drawbacks to tandem language learning ==

iii teacher (pedagogical) leadership

Tandem language learning is a concept that offers potential linguistic and cultural advantages. It allows students of different nationalities to learn from each other without any financial cost. However, there are several factors that can hinder its effectiveness.<ref name="Drummer">{{Cite news|url=https://agnieszkadrummer.wordpress.com/2012/11/02/dlaczego-tandemy-jezykowe-czesto-nie-dzialaja/|title=Dlaczego tandemy językowe często "nie działają"?|last=Drummer|first=A|date=2012|work=Agnieszka Drummer - język niemiecki|access-date=2018-02-14|language=pl-PL}}</ref>

iv. pedagogical integration of the activity into the class and the learning process

One reason is the limited availability of foreign students interested in studying minority languages, such as Polish or Maltese. Even if speakers of minority languages are interested in learning more widely spoken languages like English or German, they may struggle to find tandem partners who share their interest. Minority languages often have limited demand in the global market for [[Foreign language|foreign languages]].<ref name="Drummer" />

'''Digital Tools to Facilitate Telecollaborative Exchanges (Guth and Thomas, 2010)'''<ref name=GuthThomas2010>{{cite book|title = Telecollaboration 2.0: Language literacies and intercultural learning in the 21st Century.|last = Guth, S. & Helm, F. (Eds.).|first = |publisher = Peter Lang.|year = 2010|isbn = |___location = Bern, Switzerland|pages = }}</ref>

# Media Sharing (Flickr, YouTube)

# Social Bookmarking (Delicious, Connotea, CiteULike)

# Feed Aggregators (Bloglines, GoogleReader)

# Social Networks (Facebook, My Space, Ning, Twitter)

# Wikis

# Blogs to create collaborative working space and writing exchanges.

'''Getting Started with Telecollaboration'''

Another challenge is the expertise of participants, which can be influenced by two factors. First, native speakers may lack sufficient knowledge to effectively teach their own language. Second, students themselves may face difficulties in designing meaningful learning experiences due to a lack of methodological and pedagogical skills.<ref name="Drummer" /> Error correction during tandem programs<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Py|first=B|date=2000|title=La construction interactive de la norm comme pratique et come representation|journal=Aile|volume=12|issue=12|pages=77–97|doi=10.4000/aile.1464|doi-access=free}} As cited in {{harvtxt|Cappellini|2016}}</ref> can also disrupt the flow of conversation and create anxieties for novice learners, impacting their fluency and confidence in the foreign language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.idyoma.com/blog/2018/7/17/best-way-to-learn-spanish|title=The Best Way to Learn Spanish: A Process That Works for You|work=Idyoma|access-date=2018-07-20|language=en-GB}}</ref>

These virtual platforms allow easily observable and assessable student activity, and may provide access to virtual partnerships. One example is that of the Skype in the Classroom,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.skypeintheclassroom.org/ |title=Microsoft in Education |publisher=Skype in the Classroom |date= |accessdate=2016-01-20 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307161907/http://skypeintheclassroom.org/ |archivedate=2016-03-07 |df= }}</ref> part of [[Skype]], an online telephony platform. It hosts a ready-made activity called Mystery Skype, where classes have to guess where in the world their exchange-class is based. This is a simple, easily adaptable task that could be easily integrated into normal classroom activity.

The design of tasks and integration of online language interaction within the learning process and curriculum can significantly impact the effectiveness of tandem language learning. Poorly designed tasks and a lack of pedagogical leadership can diminish the value of the approach for both students and teachers.{{sfn|O'Dowd|2013}}

Video reviews of Tandem Language Learning<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2mMYc77Pm3g |title=Informative speech: Tandem language learning |publisher=YouTube |date=2014-05-19 |accessdate=2016-01-20}}</ref> exchanges are available on YouTube.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://preply.com/en/blog/2018/02/05/top-5-youtubers-to-help-you-learn-spanish-fast/|title=Top 5 YouTubers to Help You Learn Spanish Fast|publisher=Preply blog|date=2018-02-05}}</ref>

Technology also poses challenges. Certain conferencing technologies, like [[Skype]], may result in miscommunication due to non-alignment of visual input and output. Students may appear socially absent or interrupt the usual process of indicating social presence, affecting communication. Misusing technology can lead to exclusion from the conversation.

Tandem Language Exchange<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.tandem.net|title=Tandem Language Exchange|last=|first=|date=|work=|access-date=2018-04-09|language=en}}</ref> is an app, licensed by the TANDEM Fundazioa, which allows learners to connect and practice the Tandem method together via video chat and [[instant messaging]]. Other available solutions include Idyoma<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.idyoma.com/|title=Idyoma|website=Idyoma|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-07-20}}</ref>, HelloTalk, Bilingua, and Speaky<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.slant.co/topics/5930/~language-exchange-apps-for-android|title=Slant - 7 Best language exchange apps for Android as of 2018|website=Slant|language=en|access-date=2018-07-20}}</ref>.

Cultural issues can arise during tandem programs when comparing cultures. Students may express subjective opinions and reinforce intercultural stereotypes, creating a hostile discourse and disrupting the flow of conversations. Without teacher interventions, tele-tandem interactions may become shallow performances that rely on preconceived representations of oneself and others.{{sfn|Telles|2015| p=1}} Preconceptions about the other learner's culture can also impact proactive attitudes and participation levels in the exchange.{{sfn|O'Dowd|2013}}

'''Intercultural Communicative Competence in Telecollaboration and Tandem'''

Addressing these challenges requires careful consideration and pedagogical support to ensure that tandem language learning maximizes its potential benefits while minimizing potential drawbacks.

Telecollaboration enables the augmentation of cultural awareness and [[second-language acquisition]] by geographically distant individuals using [[computer-mediated communication]] tools. A key objective of this exchange process is the development of [[Intercultural competence|Intercultural Communicative Competence]] (ICC) (O’Dowd, 2013<ref name="O'Dowd2013" />), given that previous research (see for example see Kern, 2000;<ref name="KernR2000">{{cite book|last1=Kern|first1=R.|title=Literacy and language teaching|date=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|___location=Oxford}}</ref> Fischer, 1998<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fischer|first1=G.|title=E-mail) in foreign language teaching. Towards the creation of virtual classrooms.|date=1998|publisher=Stauffenberg medien|___location=Tubingen, Germany}}</ref>) has established that exposure to different cultures via online communication may have bolstered perceptions of difference by reinforcing [[stereotype]]s, as opposed to facilitating deeper cultural awareness and understanding between participants in the online exchange. Moreover, Helm and Guth (2010)<ref name=HelmGuth2010>{{cite book|author1=Helm, F.|author2=Guth, S.|editor1-last=Francesca Helm|editor1-first=Sarah Guth|title=Telecollaboration 2.0: Language, Literacies, and Intercultural Learning in the 21st Century|date=2010|publisher=Peter Lang|___location=Bern|chapter=The Multifarious Goals of Telecollaboration 2.0}}</ref> hold that Telecollaboration is based in a globalised milieu where the ideas of culture and language may not be consistent with those of [[national identity]]; identity may derive from historical and geographical processes within a multicultural context that extends beyond national boundaries (Risager, 2007 cited in Helm and Guth, 2010, p.&nbsp;71<ref name=HelmGuth2010 />). This shift highlights the importance of facilitating an awareness of [[cultural diversity]], in terms of how learners perceive their own and other cultures. Based on this research, fostering ICC is essential given today’s cultural diversity in education (Helm and Guth, 2010;<ref name=HelmGuth2010 /> O’Dowd and Waire, 2009<ref name="O'DowdWaire2009">{{cite journal|last1=O'Dowd|first1=R.|last2=Waire|first2=P.|title=Critical issues in telecollaborative task design|journal=Computer Assisted Language Learning|date=2009|volume=22|issue=2|pages=173–188}}</ref>). Further, with the proliferation of [[Web 2.0]] (and indeed Telecollaboration 2.0) students are increasingly immersed in situations where an awareness about their own and other cultures is essential to developing communicative competence in a culturally-diverse setting. The key to the development of these competencies is collaboration within the wide array of communicative task-based activities used in Telecollaboration(O’Dowd, 2013<ref name="O'Dowd2013" />).

'''Telecollaboration Using [[Task-based learning|Task-based Learning]]: Challenges for Instructors'''

There are several challenges inherent in instructors’ choices of appropriate tasks in fostering ICC within Telecollaboration. Firstly, Samuda and [[Martin Bygate|Bygate]]'s research has indicated that while instructors may be able to implement tasks aimed at fostering ICC, they may not be able to clearly conceptualize the intended outcome of the chosen tasks (Samuda and Bygate, 2008, cited in O’Dowd & Waire, 2009, p.&nbsp;174<ref name="O'DowdWaire2009" />). Secondly, collaboration between tandem instructors may create challenges in respect of differing views on task design, especially in relation to [[learner autonomy]], that is, how much autonomy students should be given in choosing and completing tasks (O’Dowd & Waire, 2009<ref name="O'DowdWaire2009" />). Thirdly, instructors’ differing views on their role in terms of intervention and management of the task may affect the task outcome (O’Dowd and Waire, 2009<ref name="O'DowdWaire2009" />) as well as result in lengthy, time-consuming online exchange.

'''Fostering ICC within Telecollaboration Using Task-based Learning: Task Types'''

Research conducted by O’Dowd and Waire (2009)<ref name="O'DowdWaire2009" /> highlighted 12 task types that could foster the development of such non-linguistic pedagogical objectives. These task types fall within 3 categories:

# Tasks designed to foster Information Exchange mainly used at the introduction stage, where students interact via the exchange of basic personal information. This may be conducted by providing cultural autobiographies, virtual interviews and informal conversation.

# Comparison and Analysis tasks are more demanding as they go beyond information exchange and require participants to compare and critically analyze [[Cultural artifact|cultural artefacts]] from their respective cultures, such as [[book]]s, [[newspaper article]]s, and [[film]]s. Furthermore, ICC may also be fostered through the use of [[questionnaire]]s designed to elicit discussion regarding different perceptions of [[Word Association|word associations]] and social situations (Furstenburg et al., 2001, cited in O’Dowd and Waire, 2009, p.&nbsp;176<ref name="O'DowdWaire2009" />), creating a context for virtual discussion on these matters.

# Collaborative tasks are aimed at the co-production, i.e. the creation of a joint artefact, in the form of an [[essay]], [[presentation]], [[translation]] or cultural adaptation of a text. This type of activity is designed to engender a context in which participants actively negotiate meaning linguistically and culturally, and reach an agreement on their final co-production arising from their collaboration (O’Dowd and Waire, 2009<ref name="O'DowdWaire2009" />).

== Tandem learning using the Cormier Method ==

According to Chang & Kuo (2009) <ref>{{Cite book|title=Learning culture and language through ICTs : methods for enhanced instruction|date=2009|publisher=Information Science Reference|others=Chang, Maiga, 1974-, Kuo, Chen-Wo.|isbn=9781605661667|___location=Hershey PA|oclc=430984238}}</ref> the Cormier method is based on instructions in which small groups of learners with different mother tongues interact for in-tandem learning to occur. Devised by Helene Cormier, a language teacher at Club d'échange linguistique de Montréal language school (CELM), the participants develop conversations that are aimed to consolidate developed skills in the areas of listening, comprehension, vocabulary and pronunciation.

Participants of this language exchange can experience how native speakers interact through text, voice and video chat. The sessions take about roughly one hour, in which the participants speak in one language for thirty minutes and then switch to the other language for the following thirty minutes. Additionally, through this experience the learners have the chance to learn something from their peers’ culture by using the target language accordingly. &nbsp;

In Mullaiselvan Mohan’s (2016) <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/site/mullais/Home/misc/cormier-method|title=Cormier method - mullais|website=sites.google.com|access-date=2018-02-14}}</ref> Google site, there are five recommendations that should be taken into account in order to develop sessions with the Cormier method.

These include:

* Utilising the timer accordingly

* Taking charge of your own learning when speaking in your second language

* Being sensitive to your partners' needs when speaking in your own language

* Not correcting grammar all the time, but striving for communication

* Being considerate to others

Abdulezer et al (2007) <ref>{{Cite book|title=Skype for dummies|last=Loren.|first=Abdulezer,|date=2007|publisher=Wiley Pub|others=Abdulezer, Susan., Dammond, Howard., Zennström, Niklas.|isbn=978-0470048917|___location=Hoboken, N.J.|oclc=85838113}}</ref> state that the Cormier method is implemented in mylanguageexchange.com, a formal language-learning site, which recommends the implementation of Skype since it is free, mobile and easy to install in most electronic devices that possess a webcam and a microphone. Through the use of Skype audio conferencing learners are able to formulate small groups and use the built-in timer in Skype to maintain the rotation of languages.

Advantages:

* Small focused groups allow all participants to practise and develop close relationships

* Pre-designed lesson plans and engaging activities stimulate participants’ motivation

* Real-time communication with native speakers of your target language is arguably more beneficial than any textbook or pre-recorded media

* Can be accessed anywhere with an adequate internet connection

* Virtual timer manages and allocates time for each participate to practice

Disadvantages:

* Only suitable for intermediate and above levels

* Native speakers may struggle to assist learners’ if they have no teaching background

* Learners from different educational backgrounds and knowledge may hinder communication

* Accessibility in certain countries

* Practice vs Progression &nbsp;

As this method is primarily for practising, it should not be the main source of language learning and should be seen as a review or a tool that helps learners improve their language learning skills.

Cormier’s method is a simple approach to e-tandem learning that has clearly had success, particularly with the use of Skype. Implementing such a method is possible with relative ease, but there are drawbacks as previously discussed. However, with an abundance of new technologies emerging, different and improved approaches to that of Cormier may have even greater success in the future. These tools could be utilised to incorporate language-learning beginners, as well as improve upon the accessibility to learners in countries where Skype may not be available. Alternative digital tools such as Google Hangouts, Viber, ooVoo, WeChat and many more means that e-tandem learning and telecollaboration will be an area of language learning that continues to grow and prosper.

== Why tandem language learning does not always work ==

Tandem language learning is in theory a great idea that reaps various linguistic and cultural benefits. Students of different nationalities can learn from each other for free. However, there are various reasons that may not allow this to work (Drummer, 2012).<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://agnieszkadrummer.wordpress.com/2012/11/02/dlaczego-tandemy-jezykowe-czesto-nie-dzialaja/|title=Dlaczego tandemy językowe często "nie działają"?|last=Drummer|first=A|date=2012|work=Agnieszka Drummer - język niemiecki|access-date=2018-02-14|language=pl-PL}}</ref>

* '''Lack of sufficient amount of foreign students who wish to study a particular minority language''' (such as Polish, Maltese and others). Even if speakers of minority languages want to learn more popular ones such as English or German, they may find difficulty to find others who are interested in theirs. Minority languages are not very attractive in the world market of [[foreign language]]s (Drummer, 2012)<ref name=":0" />

* '''Participants´expertise:''' this may involve two factors:

# Insufficient knowledge: Native speakers may lack sufficient knowledge to teach their own language to others. It may also be very challenging and time consuming for students to be methodologically and pedagogically apt to design meaningful learning experiences (Drummer, 2012).<ref name=":0" />

# Error correction: According to Py (2000)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Py|first=B|date=2000|title=La construction interactive de la norm comme pratique et come representation|url=|journal=Aile|volume=12|pages=77–97|via=}}</ref> as cited in Cappellini (2016)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cappellini|first=M|date=2016|title=Roles and Scaffolding in Teletandem Interactions: A Study of the Relations between the Sociocultural and the Language Learning Dimensions in a French-Chinese Teletandem|doi=10.1080/17501229.2016.1134859|journal=Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching|volume=10 |issue=1|pages=6–20|via=}}</ref> novice learners speaking in a foreign language during tandem programmes may make mistakes which provoke interruptions from the language experts that aim to correct the error. Such interruptions may hinder the flow of the conversation, disturb the fluency of the novice speaker and produce further foreign language anxieties<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.idyoma.com/blog/2018/7/17/best-way-to-learn-spanish|title=The Best Way to Learn Spanish: A Process That Works for You|work=Idyoma|access-date=2018-07-20|language=en-GB}}</ref>.

* '''Task design''': &nbsp;If the online language interaction lacks proper integration within the learning process and the course curriculum, displays no pedagogical leadership and has carelessly designed tasks, the value of tandem language learning can be downplayed by both students and teachers alike (O´Dowd, 2013).<ref>O'Dowd, R. (2013). Telecollaboration and CALL. In Thomas, M., Reinders, H., & Warshauer, M. (Eds.) ''Contemporary computer-assisted language learning''. London: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 123-140. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://site.ebrary.com/lib/uon/detail.action?docID=10632566</nowiki></ref> &nbsp;

* '''Affordances of technology:''' Technology can sometimes come in the way of successful online intercultural exchanges. Lewis (2017)<ref>Lewis, T. (2017). Introduction to system special issue on telecollaboration. ''System,'' ''64'', 1-6. doi:10.1016/j.system.2017.01.007</ref> argues that there may be a non - alignment of visual input and output when using certain conferencing technologies such as [[Skype]]. Consequently, &nbsp;students will appear to be socially absent from the conversation which will bring about miscommunication. Moreover, the affordances of [[Teleconference|teleconferencing]] can undermine actual communication by interrupting the usual process of indicating social presence that includes looking directly at the interlocutor. Hence, if students by mistake signal themselves as socially absent from the other teleconference participants, it can contribute to their exclusion from the conversation.

* '''Cultural issues:''' Telles (2015)<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Telles|first=João Antonio|last2=Telles|first2=João Antonio|date=March 2015|title=Teletandem and performativity|url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S1984-63982015000100001&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en|journal=Revista Brasileira de Linguística Aplicada|volume=15|issue=1|pages=1–30|doi=10.1590/1984-639820155536|issn=1984-6398}}</ref> implies that during tandem programmes when comparing cultures, students may share their subjective opinions and reinforce intercultural [[stereotype]]s that may create a hostile discourse and interrupt the flow of the conversations. &nbsp;To this end, he suggests that without teacher interventions tele tandem interactions “may fall into shallow performances of sedimented and pre-given representations of self and other” (Telles, 2015, p.&nbsp;1).<ref name=":1" /> This tallies with O’ Dowd (2013)’s<ref name="O'Dowd2013" /> views who sustains that preconceptions of the other learner's culture can affect learners’ proactive attitudes and levels of participation in the exchange (O´Dowd, 2015 as cited in O´Dowd, 2013).<ref name="O'Dowd2013" /> &nbsp;

To conclude, in theory, language tandem is a great idea and at times it may be beneficial. However, it requires a mutual effort from both parties, time and synchronization. If one of the parties is not satisfied with the learning experience, the tandem language experience may not be a successful educational endeavour (Drummer, 2012).<ref name=":0" /> &nbsp;

==References==

{{reflist|30em}}

{{reflist|30em|refs=Abdulezer, L., Abdulezer, S. & Dammond, H. 2007. Skype for Dummies. Wiley Publishing. Indianapolis, Indiana. USA.

{{Refbegin}}

*{{Cite journal |last=Cappellini |first=M. |date=2016 |title=Roles and Scaffolding in Teletandem Interactions: A Study of the Relations between the Sociocultural and the Language Learning Dimensions in a French-Chinese Teletandem |doi=10.1080/17501229.2016.1134859 |journal=Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching |volume=10 |issue=1|pages=6–20|s2cid=147670539 }}

Chang, M. & , Kuo, C. 2009. Learning Culture and Language through ICTs: Methods for Enhanced Instruction. Information science reference. Hershey, New York, USA.

*{{Cite journal |last=Telles |first=João Antonio |date=March 2015 |title=Teletandem and performativity |journal=Revista Brasileira de Linguística Aplicada |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.1590/1984-639820155536 |issn=1984-6398 |doi-access=free |hdl=11449/127269 |hdl-access=free }}

*{{cite encyclopedia |title = Telecollaboration and CALL |editor-last1=Thomas |editor-first1=M. |editor-last2=Reinders |editor-first2=H. |editor-last3=Warshauer |editor-first3=M. |encyclopedia=Contemporary computer-assisted language learning |last = O'Dowd |first = R. |___location=London|publisher = Bloomsbury Academic|year = 2013|pages= 123–140 }}

Mohan, M. 2016. Cormier Method. Retrieved from https://sites.google.}}

*{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=T. |date=2017|title=Introduction to system special issue on telecollaboration |journal=System|volume=64|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/j.system.2017.01.007}}

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==External links==

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*[http://www.slf.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/Tandem/learning/tanbib.html An extensive bibliography on the tandem method]

*[https://tandemcity.info/en/free-tandem-downloads/ Open material data base of Tandem Fundazioa]

*[https://www.tandempartners.org/en Community to find a tandem partner in your region]

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