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→RNA editing: Deleted section. This is an article about the definition of non-coding RNA and a brief description of the various types of functional RNAS other than mRNA. RNA editing is not relevant and not confined to non-coding RNA. |
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A '''non-coding RNA''' ('''ncRNA''') is a functional [[RNA]] molecule that is not [[Translation (genetics)|translated]] into a [[protein]]. The [[DNA]] sequence from which a functional non-coding RNA is transcribed is often called an RNA [[gene]]. Abundant and functionally important [[list of RNAs|types of non-coding RNAs]] include [[transfer RNA]]s (tRNAs) and [[ribosomal RNA]]s (rRNAs), as well as small RNAs such as [[microRNA]]s, [[siRNA]]s, [[piRNA]]s, [[snoRNA]]s, [[snRNA]]s, [[Extracellular RNA|exRNAs]], [[scaRNAs]] and the [[long noncoding RNA|long ncRNA]]s such as [[Xist]] and [[HOTAIR]].
The number of non-coding RNAs within the human genome is unknown; however, recent [[Transcriptomics|transcriptomic]] and [[Bioinformatics|bioinformatic]] studies suggest that there are thousands of non-coding transcripts.<ref name="pmid15790807">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cheng J, Kapranov P, Drenkow J, Dike S, Brubaker S, Patel S, Long J, Stern D, Tammana H, Helt G, Sementchenko V, Piccolboni A, Bekiranov S, Bailey DK, Ganesh M, Ghosh S, Bell I, Gerhard DS, Gingeras TR | display-authors = 6 | title = Transcriptional maps of 10 human chromosomes at 5-nucleotide resolution | journal = Science | volume = 308 | issue = 5725 | pages = 1149–1154 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15790807 | doi = 10.1126/science.1108625 | s2cid = 13047538 | bibcode = 2005Sci...308.1149C }}</ref><ref name="pmid17571346" /><ref name="Thind">{{cite journal | vauthors = Thind AS, Monga I, Thakur PK, Kumari P, Dindhoria K, Krzak M, Ranson M, Ashford B | display-authors = 6 | title = Demystifying emerging bulk RNA-Seq applications: the application and utility of bioinformatic methodology | journal = Briefings in Bioinformatics | volume = 22 | issue = 6 | date = November 2021 | article-number = bbab259 | pmid = 34329375 | doi = 10.1093/bib/bbab259 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17568003">{{cite journal | vauthors = Washietl S, Pedersen JS, Korbel JO, Stocsits C, Gruber AR, Hackermüller J, Hertel J, Lindemeyer M, Reiche K, Tanzer A, Ucla C, Wyss C, Antonarakis SE, Denoeud F, Lagarde J, Drenkow J, Kapranov P, Gingeras TR, Guigó R, Snyder M, Gerstein MB, Reymond A, Hofacker IL, Stadler PF | display-authors = 6 | title = Structured RNAs in the ENCODE selected regions of the human genome | journal = Genome Research | volume = 17 | issue = 6 | pages = 852–864 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17568003 | pmc = 1891344 | doi = 10.1101/gr.5650707 }}</ref><ref name= MorrisKV>{{cite book | veditors = Morris KV | year=2012 | title=Non-coding RNAs and Epigenetic Regulation of Gene Expression: Drivers of Natural Selection | publisher=[[Caister Academic Press]] | isbn= 978-1-904455-94-3}}</ref><ref name="Shahrouki P 2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shahrouki P, Larsson E | title = The non-coding oncogene: a case of missing DNA evidence? | journal = Frontiers in Genetics | volume = 3 | pages = 170 | date = 2012 | pmid = 22988449 | pmc = 3439828 | doi = 10.3389/fgene.2012.00170 | doi-access = free }}</ref><!--<sup> but see </sup>--><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = van Bakel H, Nislow C, Blencowe BJ, Hughes TR | title = Most "dark matter" transcripts are associated with known genes | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = e1000371 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20502517 | pmc = 2872640 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000371 | veditors = Eddy SR | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Many of the newly identified ncRNAs have unknown functions, if any.<ref name="pmid15851066">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hüttenhofer A, Schattner P, Polacek N | title = Non-coding RNAs: hope or hype? | journal = Trends in Genetics | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 289–297 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15851066 | doi = 10.1016/j.tig.2005.03.007 }}</ref>
There is no consensus on how much of non-coding transcription is functional: some believe most ncRNAs to be non-functional "junk RNA", spurious transcriptions,<ref name="waste">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brosius J | title = Waste not, want not--transcript excess in multicellular eukaryotes | journal = Trends in Genetics | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 287–288 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15851065 | doi = 10.1016/j.tig.2005.02.014 }}</ref><ref name="PalazzoLee2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Palazzo AF, Lee ES | title = Non-coding RNA: what is functional and what is junk? | journal = Frontiers in Genetics | volume = 6 | pages = 2 | year = 2015 | pmid = 25674102 | pmc = 4306305 | doi = 10.3389/fgene.2015.00002 | doi-access = free }}</ref> while others expect that many non-coding transcripts have functions to be discovered.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Mattick J, Amaral P |title=RNA, The Epicenter of Genetic Information : A New Understanding of Molecular Biology |date=2022 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn= 9780367623920}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee H, Zhang Z, Krause HM | title = Long Noncoding RNAs and Repetitive Elements: Junk or Intimate Evolutionary Partners? | journal = Trends in Genetics | volume = 35 | issue = 12 | pages = 892–902 | date = December 2019 | pmid = 31662190 | doi = 10.1016/j.tig.2019.09.006 | s2cid = 204975291 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
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Noncoding RNAs belong to several groups and are involved in many cellular processes.<ref name="Monga">{{cite journal | vauthors = Monga I, Banerjee I | title = Computational Identification of piRNAs Using Features Based on RNA Sequence, Structure, Thermodynamic and Physicochemical Properties | journal = Current Genomics | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 508–518 | date = November 2019 | pmid = 32655289 | pmc = 7327968 | doi = 10.2174/1389202920666191129112705 }}</ref> These range from ncRNAs of central importance that are conserved across all or most cellular life through to more transient ncRNAs specific to one or a few closely related species. The more conserved ncRNAs are thought to be [[molecular fossil]]s or relics from the [[LUCA|last universal common ancestor]] and the [[RNA world hypothesis|RNA world]], and their current roles remain mostly in regulation of information flow from DNA to protein.<ref name="pmid9419222">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jeffares DC, Poole AM, Penny D | title = Relics from the RNA world | journal = Journal of Molecular Evolution | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 18–36 | date = January 1998 | pmid = 9419222 | doi = 10.1007/PL00006280 | s2cid = 2029318 | bibcode = 1998JMolE..46...18J }}</ref><ref name="pmid9419221">{{cite journal | vauthors = Poole AM, Jeffares DC, Penny D | title = The path from the RNA world | journal = Journal of Molecular Evolution | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–17 | date = January 1998 | pmid = 9419221 | doi = 10.1007/PL00006275 | s2cid = 17968659 | bibcode = 1998JMolE..46....1P }}</ref><ref name="pmid10497339">{{cite journal | vauthors = Poole A, Jeffares D, Penny D | title = Early evolution: prokaryotes, the new kids on the block | journal = BioEssays | volume = 21 | issue = 10 | pages = 880–889 | date = October 1999 | pmid = 10497339 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1521-1878(199910)21:10<880::AID-BIES11>3.0.CO;2-P | s2cid = 45607498 }}</ref>
[[Image:010 large subunit-1FFK.gif|thumb|left|Atomic structure of the 50S Subunit from
===In translation===
▲[[Image:010 large subunit-1FFK.gif|thumb|left|Atomic structure of the 50S Subunit from ''[[Haloarcula|Haloarcula marismortui]]''. Proteins are shown in blue and the two RNA strands in orange and yellow.<ref name=Ban>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ban N, Nissen P, Hansen J, Moore PB, Steitz TA | title = The complete atomic structure of the large ribosomal subunit at 2.4 A resolution | journal = Science | volume = 289 | issue = 5481 | pages = 905–920 | date = August 2000 | pmid = 10937989 | doi = 10.1126/science.289.5481.905 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.58.2271 | bibcode = 2000Sci...289..905B }}</ref> The small patch of green in the center of the subunit is the active site.]]
Many of the conserved, essential and abundant ncRNAs are involved in [[Translation (genetics)|translation]]. [[Ribonucleoprotein]] (RNP) particles called [[ribosome]]s are the 'factories' where translation takes place in the cell. The ribosome consists of more than 60% [[rRNA|ribosomal RNA]]; these are made up of 3 ncRNAs in [[prokaryotes]] and 4 ncRNAs in [[eukaryotes]]. Ribosomal RNAs catalyse the translation of nucleotide sequences to protein. Another set of ncRNAs, [[Transfer RNA]]s, form an 'adaptor molecule' between [[mRNA]] and protein. The [[snoRNA|H/ACA box and C/D box snoRNAs]] are ncRNAs found in archaea and eukaryotes. [[RNase MRP]] is restricted to eukaryotes. Both groups of ncRNA are involved in the maturation of rRNA. The snoRNAs guide covalent modifications of rRNA, tRNA and [[snRNA]]s; RNase MRP cleaves the [[internal transcribed spacer 1]] between 18S and 5.8S rRNAs. The ubiquitous ncRNA, [[RNase P]], is an evolutionary relative of RNase MRP.<ref name="PMID16540690">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhu Y, Stribinskis V, Ramos KS, Li Y | title = Sequence analysis of RNase MRP RNA reveals its origination from eukaryotic RNase P RNA | journal = RNA | volume = 12 | issue = 5 | pages = 699–706 | date = May 2006 | pmid = 16540690 | pmc = 1440897 | doi = 10.1261/rna.2284906 }}</ref> RNase P matures tRNA sequences by generating mature 5'-ends of tRNAs through cleaving the 5'-leader elements of precursor-tRNAs. Another ubiquitous RNP called [[Signal recognition particle|SRP]] recognizes and transports specific nascent proteins to the [[endoplasmic reticulum]] in [[eukaryote]]s and the [[plasma membrane]] in [[prokaryote]]s. In bacteria, [[tmRNA|Transfer-messenger RNA]] (tmRNA) is an RNP involved in rescuing stalled ribosomes, tagging incomplete [[Peptide|polypeptides]] and promoting the degradation of aberrant mRNA.{{citation needed|date=June 2017}}
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In mammals it has been found that snoRNAs can also regulate the [[alternative splicing]] of mRNA, for example snoRNA [[Small nucleolar RNA SNORD115|HBII-52]] regulates the splicing of [[5-HT2C receptor|serotonin receptor 2C]].<ref name=Kishore>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kishore S, Stamm S | title = The snoRNA HBII-52 regulates alternative splicing of the serotonin receptor 2C | journal = Science | volume = 311 | issue = 5758 | pages = 230–232 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16357227 | doi = 10.1126/science.1118265 | s2cid = 44527461 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2006Sci...311..230K }}</ref>
In nematodes, the [[SmY]] ncRNA appears to be involved in mRNA [[trans-splicing]].<ref>{{
===In DNA replication===
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The bacterial ncRNA, [[6S RNA]], specifically associates with RNA polymerase holoenzyme containing the [[Sigma factor|sigma70]] specificity factor. This interaction represses expression from a sigma70-dependent [[promoter (biology)|promoter]] during [[Bacterial growth|stationary phase]].{{citation needed|date=June 2017}}
Another bacterial ncRNA, [[OxyS RNA]] represses translation by binding to [[Shine-Dalgarno
The B2 RNA is a small noncoding RNA polymerase III transcript that represses mRNA transcription in response to heat shock in mouse
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''Bifunctional RNAs'', or ''dual-function RNAs'', are RNAs that have two distinct functions.<ref name="pmid18042713">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wadler CS, Vanderpool CK | title = A dual function for a bacterial small RNA: SgrS performs base pairing-dependent regulation and encodes a functional polypeptide | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 104 | issue = 51 | pages = 20454–20459 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18042713 | pmc = 2154452 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0708102104 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2007PNAS..10420454W }}</ref><ref name="pmid19043537">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dinger ME, Pang KC, Mercer TR, Mattick JS | title = Differentiating protein-coding and noncoding RNA: challenges and ambiguities | journal = PLOS Computational Biology | volume = 4 | issue = 11 | pages = e1000176 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 19043537 | pmc = 2518207 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000176 | veditors = McEntyre J | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2008PLSCB...4E0176D }}</ref> The majority of the known bifunctional RNAs are mRNAs that encode both a protein and ncRNAs. However, a growing number of ncRNAs fall into two different ncRNA categories; e.g., [[snoRNA|H/ACA box snoRNA]] and [[miRNA]].<ref name="pmid19043559">{{cite journal | vauthors = Saraiya AA, Wang CC | title = snoRNA, a novel precursor of microRNA in Giardia lamblia | journal = PLOS Pathogens | volume = 4 | issue = 11 | pages = e1000224 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 19043559 | pmc = 2583053 | doi = 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000224 | veditors = Goldberg DE | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid19026782">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ender C, Krek A, Friedländer MR, Beitzinger M, Weinmann L, Chen W, Pfeffer S, Rajewsky N, Meister G | display-authors = 6 | title = A human snoRNA with microRNA-like functions | journal = Molecular Cell | volume = 32 | issue = 4 | pages = 519–528 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 19026782 | doi = 10.1016/j.molcel.2008.10.017 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Two well known examples of bifunctional RNAs are [[SgrS RNA]] and [[RNAIII]]. However, a handful of other bifunctional RNAs are known to exist (e.g., steroid receptor activator/SRA,<ref name="pmid17710122">{{cite journal | vauthors = Leygue E | title = Steroid receptor RNA activator (SRA1): unusual bifaceted gene products with suspected relevance to breast cancer | journal = Nuclear Receptor Signaling | volume = 5 | pages = e006 | date = August 2007 | article-number = nrs.05006 | pmid = 17710122 | pmc = 1948073 | doi = 10.1621/nrs.05006 }}</ref> VegT RNA,<ref name="pmid9012531">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang J, King ML | title = Xenopus VegT RNA is localized to the vegetal cortex during oogenesis and encodes a novel T-box transcription factor involved in mesodermal patterning | journal = Development | volume = 122 | issue = 12 | pages = 4119–4129 | date = December 1996 | pmid = 9012531 | doi = 10.1242/dev.122.12.4119 | s2cid = 28462527 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16000384">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kloc M, Wilk K, Vargas D, Shirato Y, Bilinski S, Etkin LD | title = Potential structural role of non-coding and coding RNAs in the organization of the cytoskeleton at the vegetal cortex of Xenopus oocytes | journal = Development | volume = 132 | issue = 15 | pages = 3445–3457 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16000384 | doi = 10.1242/dev.01919 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Oskar RNA,<ref name="pmid16835436">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jenny A, Hachet O, Závorszky P, Cyrklaff A, Weston MD, Johnston DS, Erdélyi M, Ephrussi A | display-authors = 6 | title = A translation-independent role of oskar RNA in early Drosophila oogenesis | journal = Development | volume = 133 | issue = 15 | pages = 2827–2833 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16835436 | doi = 10.1242/dev.02456 | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[ENOD40]],<ref name="pmid17452360">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gultyaev AP, Roussis A | title = Identification of conserved secondary structures and expansion segments in enod40 RNAs reveals new enod40 homologues in plants | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 35 | issue = 9 | pages = 3144–3152 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17452360 | pmc = 1888808 | doi = 10.1093/nar/gkm173 }}</ref> p53 RNA<ref name="pmid19160491">{{cite journal | vauthors = Candeias MM, Malbert-Colas L, Powell DJ, Daskalogianni C, Maslon MM, Naski N, Bourougaa K, Calvo F, Fåhraeus R | display-authors = 6 | title = P53 mRNA controls p53 activity by managing Mdm2 functions | journal = Nature Cell Biology | volume = 10 | issue = 9 | pages = 1098–1105 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 19160491 | doi = 10.1038/ncb1770 | s2cid = 5122088 }}</ref> [[SR1 RNA]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gimpel M, Preis H, Barth E, Gramzow L, Brantl S | title = SR1--a small RNA with two remarkably conserved functions | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 40 | issue = 22 | pages = 11659–11672 | date = December 2012 | pmid = 23034808 | pmc = 3526287 | doi = 10.1093/nar/gks895 }}</ref> and [[Spot 42 RNA]].<ref name="pmid35239441">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aoyama JJ, Raina M, Zhong A, Storz G | title = Dual-function Spot 42 RNA encodes a 15-amino acid protein that regulates the CRP transcription factor | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 119 | issue = 10 |
=== As a hormone ===
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There is an important link between certain non-coding RNAs and the control of hormone-regulated pathways. In ''[[Drosophila]]'', hormones such as [[ecdysone]] and [[juvenile hormone]] can promote the expression of certain miRNAs. Furthermore, this regulation occurs at distinct temporal points within ''Caenorhabditis elegans'' development.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sempere LF, Sokol NS, Dubrovsky EB, Berger EM, Ambros V | title = Temporal regulation of microRNA expression in Drosophila melanogaster mediated by hormonal signals and broad-Complex gene activity | journal = Developmental Biology | volume = 259 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–18 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12812784 | doi = 10.1016/S0012-1606(03)00208-2 | s2cid = 17249847 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In mammals, [[Mir-206|miR-206]] is a crucial regulator of [[estrogen]]-receptor-alpha.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Adams BD, Furneaux H, White BA | title = The micro-ribonucleic acid (miRNA) miR-206 targets the human estrogen receptor-alpha (ERalpha) and represses ERalpha messenger RNA and protein expression in breast cancer cell lines | journal = Molecular Endocrinology | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 1132–1147 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17312270 | doi = 10.1210/me.2007-0022 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Non-coding RNAs are crucial in the development of several endocrine organs, as well as in endocrine diseases such as [[diabetes mellitus]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Knoll M, Lodish HF, Sun L | title = Long non-coding RNAs as regulators of the endocrine system | journal = Nature Reviews. Endocrinology | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = 151–160 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25560704 | pmc = 4376378 | doi = 10.1038/nrendo.2014.229 | hdl = 1721.1/116703 }}</ref> Specifically in the MCF-7 cell line, addition of 17β-[[estradiol]] increased global transcription of the noncoding RNAs called [[long noncoding RNA]]s (lncRNAs) near estrogen-activated coding genes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Li W, Notani D, Ma Q, Tanasa B, Nunez E, Chen AY, Merkurjev D, Zhang J, Ohgi K, Song X, Oh S, Kim HS, Glass CK, Rosenfeld MG | display-authors = 6 | title = Functional roles of enhancer RNAs for oestrogen-dependent transcriptional activation | journal = Nature | volume = 498 | issue = 7455 | pages = 516–520 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23728302 | pmc = 3718886 | doi = 10.1038/nature12210 | bibcode = 2013Natur.498..516L }}</ref>
===In pathogenic avoidance===
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===Cancer===
Many ncRNAs show abnormal expression patterns in [[cancer]]ous tissues.<ref name="Shahrouki P 2012"/> These include [[microRNA|miRNAs]], [[Long noncoding RNA#Long non-coding RNAs in disease|long mRNA-like ncRNAs]],<ref name="pmid11890990">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pibouin L, Villaudy J, Ferbus D, Muleris M, Prospéri MT, Remvikos Y, Goubin G | title = Cloning of the mRNA of overexpression in colon carcinoma-1: a sequence overexpressed in a subset of colon carcinomas | journal = Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics | volume = 133 | issue = 1 | pages = 55–60 | date = February 2002 | pmid = 11890990 | doi = 10.1016/S0165-4608(01)00634-3 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16569192">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fu X, Ravindranath L, Tran N, Petrovics G, Srivastava S | title = Regulation of apoptosis by a prostate-specific and prostate cancer-associated noncoding gene, PCGEM1 | journal = DNA and Cell Biology | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 135–141 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16569192 | doi = 10.1089/dna.2006.25.135 }}</ref> [[GAS5]],<ref name="pmid18836484">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mourtada-Maarabouni M, Pickard MR, Hedge VL, Farzaneh F, Williams GT | title = GAS5, a non-protein-coding RNA, controls apoptosis and is downregulated in breast cancer | journal = Oncogene | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 195–208 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 18836484 | doi = 10.1038/onc.2008.373 | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[Small nucleolar RNA SNORD50|SNORD50]],<ref name="pmid19683667">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dong XY, Guo P, Boyd J, Sun X, Li Q, Zhou W, Dong JT | title = Implication of snoRNA U50 in human breast cancer | journal = Journal of Genetics and Genomics = Yi Chuan Xue Bao | volume = 36 | issue = 8 | pages = 447–454 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19683667 | pmc = 2854654 | doi = 10.1016/S1673-8527(08)60134-4 }}</ref> [[telomerase RNA]] and [[Y RNA]]s.<ref name="pmid18283318">{{cite journal | vauthors = Christov CP, Trivier E, Krude T | title = Noncoding human Y RNAs are overexpressed in tumours and required for cell proliferation | journal = British Journal of Cancer | volume = 98 | issue = 5 | pages = 981–988 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18283318 | pmc = 2266855 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjc.6604254 }}</ref> The miRNAs are involved in the large scale regulation of many protein coding genes,<ref name="pmid16308420">{{cite journal | vauthors = Farh KK, Grimson A, Jan C, Lewis BP, Johnston WK, Lim LP, Burge CB, Bartel DP | display-authors = 6 | title = The widespread impact of mammalian MicroRNAs on mRNA repression and evolution | journal = Science | volume = 310 | issue = 5755 | pages = 1817–1821 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16308420 | doi = 10.1126/science.1121158 | s2cid = 1849875 | bibcode = 2005Sci...310.1817F }}</ref><ref name="pmid15685193">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lim LP, Lau NC, Garrett-Engele P, Grimson A, Schelter JM, Castle J, Bartel DP, Linsley PS, Johnson JM | display-authors = 6 | title = Microarray analysis shows that some microRNAs downregulate large numbers of target mRNAs | journal = Nature | volume = 433 | issue = 7027 | pages = 769–773 | date = February 2005 | pmid = 15685193 | doi = 10.1038/nature03315 | s2cid = 4430576 | bibcode = 2005Natur.433..769L }}</ref> the Y RNAs are important for the initiation of DNA replication,<ref name="pmid16943439"/> telomerase RNA that serves as a primer for telomerase, an RNP that extends [[Telomere|telomeric regions]] at chromosome ends (see [[Telomere#Human telomeres.2C cancer.2C and ALT.|telomeres and disease]]{{Broken anchor|date=2025-05-23|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=Telomere#Human telomeres.2C cancer.2C and ALT.|reason= }} for more information). The direct function of the long mRNA-like ncRNAs is less clear.
[[Germline]] mutations in [[Mir-16 microRNA precursor family|miR-16-1]] and [[Mir-15 microRNA precursor family|miR-15]] primary precursors have been shown to be much more frequent in patients with [[chronic lymphocytic leukemia]] compared to control populations.<ref name="pmid16251535">{{cite journal | vauthors = Calin GA, Ferracin M, Cimmino A, Di Leva G, Shimizu M, Wojcik SE, Iorio MV, Visone R, Sever NI, Fabbri M, Iuliano R, Palumbo T, Pichiorri F, Roldo C, Garzon R, Sevignani C, Rassenti L, Alder H, Volinia S, Liu CG, Kipps TJ, Negrini M, Croce CM | display-authors = 6 | title = A MicroRNA signature associated with prognosis and progression in chronic lymphocytic leukemia | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 353 | issue = 17 | pages = 1793–1801 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16251535 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa050995 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Calin GA, Dumitru CD, Shimizu M, Bichi R, Zupo S, Noch E, Aldler H, Rattan S, Keating M, Rai K, Rassenti L, Kipps T, Negrini M, Bullrich F, Croce CM | display-authors = 6 | title = Frequent deletions and down-regulation of micro- RNA genes miR15 and miR16 at 13q14 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 99 | issue = 24 | pages = 15524–15529 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12434020 | pmc = 137750 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.242606799 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2002PNAS...9915524C }}</ref>
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The [[p53]] tumor suppressor is arguably the most important agent in preventing tumor formation and progression. The p53 protein functions as a transcription factor with a crucial role in orchestrating the cellular stress response. In addition to its crucial role in cancer, p53 has been implicated in other diseases including diabetes, cell death after ischemia, and various neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington, Parkinson, and Alzheimer. Studies have suggested that p53 expression is subject to regulation by non-coding RNA.<ref name="MorrisKV"/>
Another example of non-coding RNA dysregulated in cancer cells is the long non-coding RNA Linc00707. Linc00707 is upregulated and sponges miRNAs in human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jia B, Wang Z, Sun X, Chen J, Zhao J, Qiu X | title = Long noncoding RNA LINC00707 sponges miR-370-3p to promote osteogenesis of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells through upregulating WNT2B | journal = Stem Cell Research & Therapy | volume = 10 | issue = 1 |
===Prader–Willi syndrome===
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==Distinction between functional RNA (fRNA) and ncRNA==
Scientists have started to distinguish ''functional RNA'' (''fRNA'') from ncRNA, to describe regions functional at the RNA level that may or may not be stand-alone RNA transcripts.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Carter RJ, Dubchak I, Holbrook SR | title = A computational approach to identify genes for functional RNAs in genomic sequences | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 29 | issue = 19 | pages = 3928–3938 | date = October 2001 | pmid = 11574674 | pmc = 60242 | doi = 10.1093/nar/29.19.3928 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pedersen JS, Bejerano G, Siepel A, Rosenbloom K, Lindblad-Toh K, Lander ES, Kent J, Miller W, Haussler D | display-authors = 6 | title = Identification and classification of conserved RNA secondary structures in the human genome | journal = PLOS Computational Biology | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages = e33 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16628248 | pmc = 1440920 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pcbi.0020033 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2006PLSCB...2...33P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Thomas JM, Horspool D, Brown G, Tcherepanov V, Upton C | title = GraphDNA: a Java program for graphical display of DNA composition analyses | journal = BMC Bioinformatics | volume = 8 |
== See also ==
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