Reconstructive memory: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description| A theory of memory recall}}

'''Reconstructive memory''' is a theory of [[Recall (memory)|memory recall]], in which the act of remembering is influenced by various other cognitive processes including [[perception]], [[imagination]], [[motivation]], [[semantic memory]] and [[beliefs]], amongst others. People view their memories as being a coherent and truthful account of [[episodic memory]] and believe that their perspective is free from an error during recall. However, the reconstructive process of memory recall is subject to distortion by other intervening cognitive functions and operations such as individual perceptions, social influences, and world knowledge, all of which can lead to errors during reconstruction.

[[File: Brain limbicsystem.svg|right|frame|The areas most actively involved in episodic encoding and retrieval are the medial temporal lobe (hippocampus) and the prefrontal lobe.]]

==Reconstructive process==

Memory rarely relies on a literal recount of past experiences. By using multiple interdependent cognitive processes and functions, there is never a single ___location in the brain where a given complete [[Multiple trace theory|memory trace]] of experience is stored.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Squire|first1=LR|year=1992|title=Memory and the hippocampus: a synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans|url=http://whoville.ucsd.edu/PDFs/188_Squire_PsychRev_1992.pdf|journal=Psychol. Rev.|volume=99|issue=2|pages=195–231|doi=10.1037/0033-295x.99.2.195|pmid=1594723}}</ref> Rather, memory is dependent on constructive processes during encoding that may introduce errors or distortions. Essentially, the constructive memory process functions by encoding the patterns of perceived physical characteristics, as well as the interpretive conceptual and semantic functions that act in response to the incoming information.<ref>Schacter DL. 1989. Memory. In Foundations

of Cognitive Science, ed. MI Posner, pp.

683–725. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press</ref>

In this manner, the various features of the experience must be joined together to form a coherent representation of the episode.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last1=Hemmer|first1=Pernille|last2=Steyvers|first2=Mark|date=2009|title=A Bayesian Account of Reconstructive Memory|journal=Topics in Cognitive Science|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=189–202|doi=10.1111/j.1756-8765.2008.01010.x|pmid=25164805|issn=1756-8765}}</ref> If this binding process fails, it can result in [[memory error]]s. The complexity required for reconstructing some episodes is quite demanding and can result in incorrect or incomplete recall.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Torres-Trejo|first1=Frine|last2=Cansino|first2=Selene|date=2016-06-30|title=The Effects of the Amount of Information on Episodic Memory Binding|journal=Advances in Cognitive Psychology|volume=12|issue=2|pages=79–87|doi=10.5709/acp-0188-z|pmid=27512526|pmc=4975570|issn=1895-1171|doi-access=free}}</ref> This complexity leaves individuals susceptible to phenomena such as the [[misinformation effect]] across subsequent recollections.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kiat|first1=John E.|last2=Belli|first2=Robert F.|date=2017-05-01|title=An exploratory high-density EEG investigation of the misinformation effect: Attentional and recollective differences between true and false perceptual memories|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1074742717300606|journal=Neurobiology of Learning and Memory|language=en|volume=141|pages=199–208|doi=10.1016/j.nlm.2017.04.007|issn=1074-7427|pmid=28442391|s2cid=4421445|url-access=subscription}}</ref> By employing reconstructive processes, individuals supplement other aspects of available personal knowledge and schema into the gaps found in episodic memory in order to provide a fuller and more coherent version, albeit one that is often distorted.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Frisoni|first1=Matteo|last2=Di Ghionno|first2=Monica|last3=Guidotti|first3=Roberto|last4= Tosoni|first4=Annalisa|last5=Sestieri|first5=Carlo|date=2021|title=Reconstructive Nature of Temporal Memory for Movie Scenes|journal=Cognition|volume=208|pages=104557|doi=10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104557| issn=0010-0277 |pmid=33373938|s2cid=229539467|hdl=11585/964912|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Many errors can occur when attempting to retrieve a specific episode. First, the retrieval cues used to initiate the search for a specific episode may be too similar to other experiential memories and the retrieval process may fail if the individual is unable to form a specific description of the unique characteristics of the given memory they would like to retrieve.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Burgess | first1 = PW | last2 = Shallice | first2 = T | year = 1996 | title = Confabulation and the control of recollection | journal = Memory | volume = 4 | issue = 4| pages = 359–411 | doi = 10.1080/096582196388906 | pmid = 8817460 }}</ref> When there is little available distinctive information for a given episode there will be more overlap across multiple episodes, leading the individual to recall only the general similarities common to these memories. Ultimately proper recall for a desired target memory fails due to the interference of non-target memories that are activated because of their similarity.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

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However, in a study by Clifford and Scott (1978), participants were shown either a film of a violent crime or a film of a non-violent crime. The participants who viewed the stressful film had difficulty remembering details about the event compared to the participants that watched the non-violent film.<ref name="simplypsych" /> In a study by Brigham et al. (2010), subjects who experienced an electrical shock were less accurate in facial recognition tests, suggesting that some details were not well remembered under stressful situations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brigham|first1=John C.|last2=Maass|first2=Anne|last3=Martinez|first3=David|last4=Whittenberger|first4=Gary|date=1983-09-01|title=The Effect of Arousal on Facial Recognition|journal=Basic and Applied Social Psychology|volume=4|issue=3|pages=279–293|doi=10.1207/s15324834basp0403_6|issn=0197-3533}}</ref> In fact, in the case of the phenomena known as [[weapon focus]], eyewitnesses to stressful crimes involving weapons may perform worse during suspect identification.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fawcett|first1=Jonathan M.|last2=Peace|first2=Kristine A.|last3=Greve|first3=Andrea|date=2016-09-01|title=Looking Down the Barrel of a Gun: What Do We Know About the Weapon Focus Effect?|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|language=en|volume=5|issue=3|pages=257–263|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.07.005|issn=2211-3681|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Further studies on flashbulb memories seem to indicate that witnesses may recall vivid sensory content unrelated to the actual event but which enhance its perceived vividness.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Howes|first1=Mary|title=Chapter 9 - Memory and Emotion|date=2014-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124080874000098|work=Human Memory|pages=177–196|editor-last=Howes|editor-first=Mary|publisher=Academic Press|language=en|isbn=978-0-12-408087-4|access-date=2020-04-14|last2=O'Shea|first2=Geoffrey|editor2-last=O'Shea|editor2-first=Geoffrey|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-408087-4.00009-8|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Due to this vividness, eyewitnesses may place higher confidence in their reconstructed memories.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Christianson|first=Sven-Åke|date=1992|title=Emotional stress and eyewitness memory: A critical review.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=112|issue=2|pages=284–309|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.112.2.284|issn=1939-1455|pmid=1454896}}</ref>

====Application of schema====

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===Retrieval cues===

After the information is encoded and stored in our memory, specific cues are often needed to retrieve these memories. These are known as retrieval cues<ref>{{CitationCite journal |last=Frankland |first=Paul W. |last2=Josselyn |first2=Sheena A. |last3=Köhler |first3=Stefan needed|date=AprilSeptember 202024, 2019 |title=The neurobiological foundation of memory retrieval |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-019-0493-1 |journal=Nature Neuroscience |language=en |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages=1576–1585 |doi=10.1038/s41593-019-0493-1 |issn=1546-1726 |pmc=6903648 |pmid=31551594}}</ref> and they play a major role in reconstructive memory. The use of retrieval cues can both promote the accuracy of reconstructive memory as well as detract from it. The most common aspect of retrieval cues associated with reconstructive memory is the process that involves recollection. This process uses logical structures, partial memories, narratives, or clues to retrieve the desired memory.<ref>Cherry, K. (2010, June 7). [https://www.verywell.com/memory-retrieval-2795007 Memory Retrieval - How Information is Retrieved From Memory]. Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts.</ref> However, the process of recollection is not always successful due to [[cue-dependent forgetting]] and [[Priming (psychology)|priming]].

====Cue-dependent forgetting====

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====Priming====

Priming refers to an increased sensitivity to certain stimuli due to prior experience.<ref>{{cite APA Dictionary |title=Priming |shortlink=priming |access-date=2020-04-14 }}</ref> Priming is believed to occur outside of conscious awareness, which makes it different from memory that relies on the direct retrieval of information.<ref>Cherry, K. (2009, March 26). Priming - What Is Priming. Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts.</ref> Priming can influence reconstructive memory because it can interfere with retrieval cues. Psychologist [[Elizabeth Loftus]] presented many papers concerning the effects of proactive interference on the recall of eyewitness events. Interference involving priming was established in her classic [[Reconstruction of automobile destruction|study]] with John Palmer in 1974.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://webfiles.uci.edu/eloftus/LoftusPalmer74.pdf | last = Loftus | first = EF | author2 = Palmer JC | author-link = Elizabeth Loftus | year = 1974 | title = Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction : An Example of the Interaction Between Language and Memory | journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior | volume = 13 | issue = 5 | pages = 585–9 | doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80011-3 | s2cid = 143526400 | archive-date = 2019-10-08 | access-date = 2012-03-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191008011633/https://webfiles.uci.edu/eloftus/LoftusPalmer74.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> Loftus and Palmer recruited 150 participants and showed each of them a film of a traffic accident. After, they had the participants fill out a questionnaire concerning the video's details. The participants were split into three groups:

* Group A contained 50 participants that were asked: "About how fast were the cars going when they '''hit''' each other?”