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{{Short description|Changing between languages during a
{{About|alternating between two or more languages in speech}}
{{distinguish|Plurilingualism|Situational code-switching}}
[[File:My SARAH G INTERVIEW experience (raw video).webm|thumb|[[Sarah Geronimo]] and an interviewer code-switch between English and [[Filipino language|Filipino]] {{see below|{{section link||Filipino and English}}, below}}.]]
[[File:Maya_Diab_interview_in_Morocco_-_Oct_28,_2017.webm|start=43|end=52|thumb|[[Maya Diab]] code-switches between English and [[Lebanese Arabic]] mid-sentence.]]
{{sociolinguistics}}
In [[linguistics]], '''code-switching''' or '''language alternation''' occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more [[language]]s, or [[language varieties]], in the context of a single conversation or situation.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}
Code-switching is different from [[plurilingualism]] in that plurilingualism refers to the ability of an individual to use multiple languages,<ref name="Council of Europe">{{Cite web |title=Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) |url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages/home |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=Council of Europe |language=en-GB |archive-date=2023-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306232731/https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages/home |url-status=live }}</ref> while code-switching is the act of using multiple languages together. [[Multilingualism|Multilinguals]] (speakers of more than one language) sometimes use elements of multiple languages when conversing with each other. Thus, code-switching is the use of more than one linguistic variety in a manner consistent with the [[syntax]] and [[phonology]] of each variety.
Code-switching may happen between [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentences]], [[sentence fragments]], [[word]]s, or [[Morpheme|individual morphemes]] (in [[synthetic language]]s). However, some linguists consider the [[Loanword|borrowing]] of words or morphemes from another language to be different from other types of code-switching.<ref name="Poplack-2018">{{Cite book |last=Poplack |first=Shana
Code-switching can occur when there is a change in the environment in which one is speaking, or in the context of speaking a different language or switching the verbiage to match that of the audience. There are many ways in which code-switching is employed, such as when speakers are unable to express themselves adequately in a single language or to signal an attitude towards something. Several theories have been developed to explain the reasoning behind code-switching from sociological and linguistic perspectives.
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"RESULTS OF THE CONFERENCE OF
ANTHROPOLOGISTS AND LINGUISTS" | Claude Levi-Strauss,
Roman Jakobson, C. F. Voegelin, and Thomas A. Sebeok| https://archive.org/details/resultsofconfere00levi/mode/2up?q=code-switching</ref> written with C. F. Voegelin, T. A. Sebeok, and C. Lévi-Strauss. He
*{{Cite journal |last=Gutierrez-Clellen |first=V. |year=1999 |title=Language choice in intervention with bilingual children |journal=American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=291–302|doi=10.1044/1058-0360.0804.291 }}
*{{Cite journal |doi=10.1044/0161-1461(2005/025) |last1=Kohnert |first1=K. |author2=Yim, D. |author3=Nett, K. |author4=Duran, P. F. |author5=Duran, L. |year=2005 |title=Intervention with linguistically diverse preschool children: A focus on developing home language(s) |journal=Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools |volume=36 |pages=251–63 |issue=3|pmid=16175888 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Brice |first1=A. |last2=Brice |first2=R. |date= 2009 |title=Language development: Monolingual and bilingual acquisition |___location=Old Tappan, NJ |publisher=Merrill/Prentice Hall}}</ref>
In popular usage and in sociolinguistic study, the term code-switching is frequently used to refer to switching among [[dialect]]s, [[style-shifting|styles]] or [[Register (sociolinguistics)|registers]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Demby |first1=Gene |date=3 April 2013 |title=How Code-Switching Explains The World |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2013/04/08/176064688/how-code-switching-explains-the-world |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212152602/https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2013/04/08/176064688/how-code-switching-explains-the-world |archive-date=12 February 2020 |access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref> This form of switching is practiced, for example, by speakers of [[African American Vernacular English]] as they move from less formal to more formal settings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=DeBose |first=Charles |title=Codeswitching |publisher=Multilingual Matters |year=1992 |isbn=978-1-85359-167-9 |editor-last=Eastman |editor-first=Carol |___location=Clevedon |pages=157–167 |chapter=Codeswitching: Black English and Standard English in the African-American linguistic repertoire|journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development |volume=13 |issue=1–2 |doi=10.1080/01434632.1992.9994489}}</ref> Such shifts, when performed by public figures such as politicians, are sometimes criticized as signaling [[Authenticity (philosophy)|inauthenticity]] or insincerity.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kanngieser |first=Anja |year=2012 |title=A sonic geography of voice: Towards an affective politics |journal=Progress in Human Geography |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=336–353 |doi=10.1177/0309132511423969 |s2cid=143836366}}</ref>
The term "code-switching" is also used outside the field of linguistics. Informally, ''code-switching'' is sometimes used to refer to relatively stable informal [[Code-mixing#As fused lect|mixtures of two languages]], such as [[Spanglish]], [[Taglish]], or [[Hinglish]].<ref name="Zentella" /> Some scholars of literature use the term to describe literary styles that include elements from more than one language, as in novels by Chinese-American, Anglo-Indian, or Latino writers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Torres |first=Lourdes |title=In the Contact Zone: Code-Switching Strategies by Latino/a Writers |journal=MELUS |volume=32 |year=2007 |pages=75–96 |issue=1 |doi=10.1093/melus/32.1.75}}</ref>
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* Switching to a minority language is very common as a means of expressing solidarity with a social group. The language change signals to the listener that the speaker is from a certain background; if the listener responds with a similar switch, a degree of rapport is established.
* The switch between languages can signal the speaker's attitude towards the listener - friendly, irritated, distant, ironic, jocular and so on. Monolinguals can communicate these effects to some extent by varying the level of formality of their speech; bilinguals can do it by language switching.
Code-switching involves the capacity of bilingual individuals to switch between different languages within a single conversation.<ref name="Gutiérrez-1985">{{Cite journal |last=Gutiérrez |first=John R. |date=September 1985 |title=John Amastae and Lucía Elías-olivares (eds.), Spanish in the United States: Sociolinguistic aspects. Cambridge University Press, 1982. Pp. 434. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/language-in-society/article/abs/john-amastae-and-lucia-eliasolivares-eds-spanish-in-the-united-states-sociolinguistic-aspects-cambridge-university-press-1982-pp-434/55E8FBA19137797E11885974D12699E8 |journal=Language in Society |language=en |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=395–398 |doi=10.1017/S0047404500011350 |s2cid=143038065 |issn=1469-8013 |archive-date=2023-05-24 |access-date=2023-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524210651/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/language-in-society/article/abs/john-amastae-and-lucia-eliasolivares-eds-spanish-in-the-united-states-sociolinguistic-aspects-cambridge-university-press-1982-pp-434/55E8FBA19137797E11885974D12699E8 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> John Guiteriz notes that it is important to note that code-switching is most commonly observed among bilingual individuals who are highly skilled in both languages and is actually prevalent in numerous bilingual communities, contrary to common beliefs. The patterns of language switching exhibited by the speaker can be influenced by the listener's level of proficiency in the languages or their personal language preferences.<ref name="Gutiérrez-1985" />
== Distinguishing features ==
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=== Code-switching and language transfer ===
There is much debate in the field of linguistics regarding the distinction between code-switching and [[language transfer]].<ref name="Treffers-Daller20092">{{
Not all linguists agree on whether they should be considered similar phenomena. In some cases, linguists refer to the benefits and disadvantages of [[language transfer]] as two separate phenomena, i.e., language transference and language interference, respectively.<ref name="Brice20152">{{
Part of the debate may be solved by simply clarifying some key definitions. Evidently, linguists sometimes use different terminology to refer to the same phenomenon, which can make it confusing to distinguish between two phenomena from one another in investigative discourse. For instance, psycholinguists frequently make use of the term language switching in reference to the "controlled and willed switching" to another language. However, this term is hardly used by linguists working on natural code-switching.<ref name="Treffers-Daller20092" />
On the other hand, there are linguists that maintain "that CS and transfer are manifestations of the same phenomenon, i.e. the influence of one language on another, is an attractive null hypothesis that can be tested in experimental settings."<ref name="Treffers-Daller20092" />
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Some terms are commonly confused with usage when discussing code-switching. Sometimes they are used interchangeably as there is not a fixed and definitive definition of code-switching in the field. Below are some commonly considered definitions by scholars in the field of these terms easily confused with code-switching, highlighting the differences between them and code-switching.
Code-meshing is considered to be the combination or variation of one language with other linguistic aspects of the same language, like linguistic traditions, or simply with other languages. Whereas code-switching can indicate one language having higher recognition over another in certain settings, resulting in the latter being transmitted into the former or even being switched out for the former,<ref name="Young-2009">{{Cite journal |last=Young |first=Vershawn Ashanti |date=2009 |title="Nah, We Straight": An Argument Against Code Switching |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20866886 |journal=JAC |volume=29 |issue=1/2 |pages=49–76 |jstor=20866886 |issn=2162-5190}}</ref> code-meshing may indicate the achievement of a relative linguistic equality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Henderson Lee |first=Sarah |date=September 2014 |title=Code-Meshing as World English: Pedagogy, Policy, Practice VershawnAshanti Young & Aja Y.Martinez (Eds.). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 2011. |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tesj.163 |journal=TESOL Journal |language=en |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=551–554 |doi=10.1002/tesj.163 |archive-date=2023-03-13 |access-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313114750/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tesj.163 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The resulting product of code-meshing turns out to be more of an integration or system of language,<ref name="Young-2009" /> instead of having the different components of the product separated or segregated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Horner |first1=Bruce |last2=Alvarez |first2=Sara |date=2019-11-01 |title=Defining Translinguality |url=https://ir.library.louisville.edu/faculty/451 |journal=Faculty Scholarship |archive-date=2023-03-20 |access-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320131225/https://ir.library.louisville.edu/faculty/451/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Therefore, it even avoids some issues regarding racism and promotes rhetoric effectiveness compared to code-switching.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https://uwc.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/Code-Switching-and-Code-Meshing.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK |title=Code-Switching and Code-Meshing |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=view.officeapps.live.com |archive-date=2023-03-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313114748/https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https://uwc.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/Code-Switching-and-Code-Meshing.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK |url-status=live }}</ref>
Translingual or [[translanguaging]] may have come in the form of a combination of language usage with nonlinguistic elements.<ref name="Ilkowski-2018">{{Cite web |last=Ilkowski |first=Kimberly |date=2018-05-09 |title=Translanguaging and Code-Switching: what's the difference? |url=https://blog.oup.com/2018/05/translanguaging-code-switching-difference/ |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=OUPblog |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313114753/https://blog.oup.com/2018/05/translanguaging-code-switching-difference/ |archive-date=2023-03-13 |url-status=live |df=ymd-all}}</ref> For example, people can use multiple different languages plus drawing symbol or small images to express one message or idea by putting them together on a surface.<ref name="Ilkowski-2018" /> When compared to code-switching, it has a more common or fixed purpose of making sense or conveying meanings.<ref name="Ilkowski-2018" /> Some scholars use the term translingualism to broadly describe the behavior of combining different languages together without prescriptive definition and articulation.<ref name="University Press of Colorado-2017">{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1r6b08q |title=Crossing Divides: Exploring Translingual Writing Pedagogies and Programs |date=2017 |publisher=University Press of Colorado |jstor=j.ctt1r6b08q |isbn=978-1-60732-619-9 |archive-date=2023-03-22 |access-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322060832/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1r6b08q |url-status=live }}</ref> Specifically, they consider translingualism to be highly the usage of multiple language in writing and divide it into translingual work, translingual negotiation and translingual rhetoric for discussion and research study purpose.<ref name="University Press of Colorado-2017" />
== Rationale ==
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2023}}
There are several reasons to switch codes in a single conversation:
* {{em|A particular topic}}: People generally switch codes during discourse about a particular topic when a specific language is necessary or preferred; alternative speech may better convey relevant concepts. For example, some [[Afrobarometer]] surveys were conducted in the language used in school because certain concepts only exist in that language, and switched to a tribal or community language they grew up with for everyday concepts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lau |first=Charles |url=https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research |title=Language differences between interviewers and respondents in African surveys (Chapter 5) in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research |date=2020-04-30 |publisher=RTI Press |isbn=978-1-934831-24-3 |editor-last=Sha |editor-first=Mandy |pages=101–115 |doi=10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004 |doi-access=free |archive-date=2023-12-11 |access-date=2023-12-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211122733/https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{em|Quoting someone}}: People will switch codes while quoting another person.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
* {{em|Solidarity and gratitude}}: When expressing gratitude or solidarity, code-switching can occur inadvertently or with the intention of fostering a rapport.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
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* {{em|Intra-word switching}} occurs ''within'' a word itself, such as at a [[morpheme]] boundary.<ref name="Types" /> In [[Shona language|Shona]]-English switching one could say, "But ''ma''-day-s ''a-no a-ya ha-ndi-si ku-mu-on-a.'' ("But ''these'' days ''I don't see him much.''") Here the English plural morpheme -''s'' appears alongside the Shona prefix ''ma''-, which also marks plurality.<ref name="Winford" />
Most code-switching studies primarily focus on intra-sentential switching
A {{em|portmanteau sentence}} is a particular type of intrasentential code-switching. It is a hybrid involving structures from two different languages in one sentence<ref name="Azuma-1990" />{{rp|199}} in which an item in one language is used as a bridge between portions of the sentence in languages which have differing [[word order|word order typologies]].<ref name="Azuma-1990">{{cite book |editor1-last=Hoji |editor1-first=Hajime |editor2-last=Clancy |editor2-first=Patricia |last1=Azuma |first1=Shoji |title=Japanese/Korean Linguistics: Volume 2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5tVDKFqZscC&pg=PA193 |year=1990 |publisher=Center for the Study of Language (CSLI) |isbn=978-1-881526-14-8 |chapter=Word Order vs. Word Class: Portmanteau Sentences in Bilinguals}}</ref>{{rp|193–194}} It is more of a "syntactic blend" than the kind of lexical blend one sees in [[portmanteau word]]s such as ''smog''.<ref name="Chan-2015">{{cite journal |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |last=Chan |first=Brian Hok-Shing |title=Portmanteau Constructions, Phrase Structure, and Linearization |issn=1664-1078 |volume=6 |date=21 December 2015 |page=1851 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01851 |pmid=26733894 |pmc=4685654 |quote=The term "portmanteau" is supposed to refer to "blends" originally (e.g., "smog" that is blended from "smoke" and "fog"). Portmanteau constructions in code-switching obviously do not refer to such lexical blends but they are more like "syntactic blends" (e.g., SVOV is blended from SVO and SOV).|doi-access=free }}; anthologized in: {{cite book |editor1-last=Alexiadou |editor1-first=Artemis |editor2-last=Lohndal |editor2-first=Terje |title=The Grammar of Multilingualism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x8G0DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 |date=31 October 2016 |publisher=Frontiers Media SA |isbn=978-2-88945-012-1 |page=99}}</ref>
Almedia Jacqueleline Toribio's study aims to answer a fundamental question: How do second language learners acquire the necessary knowledge to maintain structural coherence and make well-formedness judgments when using code-switched forms?<ref name="Toribio-2001">{{Cite journal |last=Toribio |first=Almeida Jacqueline |date=December 2001 |title=On the emergence of bilingual code-switching competence |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/abs/on-the-emergence-of-bilingual-codeswitching-competence/6C7726B73B05E63F2F9F304F027FBD48 |journal=Bilingualism: Language and Cognition |language=en |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=203–231 |doi=10.1017/S1366728901000414 |s2cid=35047499 |issn=1469-1841|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The study reveals that there are two main beneficial aspects of code-switching. Both developmental patterns contribute to assessing methodological linguisitic constructs. Toribio offers an illustration of intrasentential code-switching, showcasing consistent grammatical patterns. Proficient bilingual individuals, equipped with advanced proficiency in both languages, engage in intra-sentential code alternations.<ref name="Toribio-2001" />
=== 'Intrasentential' code-switching vs. 'Insertional' code-switching ===
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1) '''''Llegamos a los Estados Unidos en los 60s.''''' We came to New York in the 60s.
"'''We arrived in the United States in the 60s'''. We came to New York in the 60s.
2) Code-switching among bilinguals '''''ha sido la fuente de numerosas investigaciones.'''''
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1) '''''El estudiante leyó el libro en el''''' reference room.
'''"The student read the book in the''' reference room.
2) I met up with m''y '''compadres''''' at the '''''fiesta''.'''
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== Code-switching in language education ==
In most language education programs, such as English as a Second Language (ESL) programs, educators and
=== Applications in language learning process ===
The application of code-switching under such a condition can be divided into two main different situations: one is the interaction between learners and the educator, and the other is the communication between students and classmates.<ref name="Hancock"/> Linguists and educators have different opinions and views toward the use of code-switching under different situations in language teaching, so the two situations will be discussed separately. Assuming that both learners and language teachers have the same native language background, which means that everyone can use their same native language to build normal communication. In addition, the situation of foreign teachers (whose native language is the target language), and students from diverse backgrounds (each student has a different native language) are not included.<ref name=Cahyani>{{cite journal|last1=Cahyani|first1=Hilda|first2=Michele|last2=de Courcy|first3=Jenny|last3=Barnett|title=Teachers' Code-Switching in Bilingual Classrooms: Exploring Pedagogical and Sociocultural Functions|journal=[[International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism]]|volume=21|year=2018|issue=4 |pages=465–479|doi=10.1080/13670050.2016.1189509 |s2cid=147719529 |url=https://unisa.alma.exlibrisgroup.com/view/delivery/61USOUTHAUS_INST/12142960180001831|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
According to Grace Cornell Gonzales and Emily Machado, many teachers adapt their teaching styles to code-switching because they believe that it allows students to feel as if they are maintaining their full identity.<ref name="Cornell Gonzales">Cornell Gonzales, Grace. Machado, Emily. "Taking the Leap: Supporting Multilingual Writers Through Translanguaging." ''The Reading Teacher''. Vol. 75, no.6, 2022. pp. 685–692.</ref> Some educators allow students to code-switch when talking or writing. This strategy has been seen to be effective because it allows students to communicate their experiences just how they felt them happen.<ref name="Cornell Gonzales" /> In some cases, some teachers will participate in code-switching when interacting with students because it allows students to feel more comfortable. According to Barbara Mellix, code-switching also allows students to feel more confident and secure with their languages and writing because they see that code-switching is acceptable in certain instances.<ref name="Mellix">Mellix, Barbara. "From Outside, In." ''The Georgia Review''. Vol. 41, no.2, 1987. pp. 258–267. {{JSTOR|41399284}}</ref> Although code-switching can become difficult to control, it has been said that speaking and writing go hand in hand: if a person can write, then they can speak and control their switch in the same or similar way.<ref name="Mellix" /> According to Ena Lee and Steve Marshall, the process of code-switching in a classroom also allows for a "greater access" to knowledge.<ref name="Lee-2012">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Ena |last2=Marshall |first2=Steve |title=Multilingualism and English language usage in 'weird' and 'funny' times: a case study of transnational youth in Vancouver |journal=International Journal of Multilingualism |date=February 2012 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=65–82 |doi=10.1080/14790718.2011.595795|s2cid=145753530 }}</ref> It is important to note that code-switching occurs more often with those whose dominant language is not standard English.<ref name="García-2018">{{cite journal |last1=García |first1=Paula B. |last2=Leibold |first2=Lori |last3=Buss |first3=Emily |last4=Calandruccio |first4=Lauren |last5=Rodriguez |first5=Barbara |title=Code-Switching in Highly Proficient Spanish/English Bilingual Adults: Impact on Masked Word Recognition |journal=Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research |date=19 September 2018 |volume=61 |issue=9 |pages=2353–2363 |doi=10.1044/2018_JSLHR-H-17-0399 |pmid=30076419 |pmc=6195050}}</ref><ref name="Mellix" />
Code switching involves utilizing entire sentences, phrases, and borrowed vocabulary from a different language. It is a prevalent linguistic occurrence observed among individuals who are bilingual. To proficiently engage in code switching, students need to possess a substantial comprehension of both cultures, along with a profound understanding of the fundamental structures and functions of language systems. Contrary to the conventional notion of code switching representing a disadvantaged and partially literate upbringing, it actually signifies an intellectual advantage.<ref name="Hughes-2006">{{Cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Claire E. |last2=Shaunessy |first2=Elizabeth S. |last3=Brice |first3=Alejandro R. |last4=Ratliff |first4=Mary Anne |last5=McHatton |first5=Patricia Alvarez |date=September 2006 |title=Code Switching among Bilingual and Limited English Proficient Students: Possible Indicators of Giftedness |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/016235320603000102 |journal=Journal for the Education of the Gifted |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=7–28 |doi=10.1177/016235320603000102 |s2cid=142565671 |issn=0162-3532 |archive-date=2023-05-25 |access-date=2023-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525203018/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/016235320603000102 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Nevertheless, code switching has typically not been regarded as a favorable attribute by educational institutions, teachers, or the dominant culture.<ref name="Hughes-2006" /> The methods employed for assessing and identifying giftedness have traditionally focused on a single language or relied on criteria and behaviors that align with the values and norms of the majority culture.<ref name="Hughes-2006" />
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Historically, there has been a prevalent tendency to discourage code switching in both the educational system and society as a whole.<ref name="Aitchison-2001">{{Cite book |last=Aitchison |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KjcYC0qp2PgC&pg=PR9 |title=Language Change: Progress Or Decay? |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79535-7 |language=en}}</ref> Jean Aitchison's notes that discouragement stems from concerns regarding the potential negative impact on the languages involved, which could potentially lead to language erosion or decline. According to Aitchison, one possible explanation for the widespread disapproval of language variations is rooted in social-class prejudice. There exists a general belief that someone should arbitrate between the different forms of English. Aitchison concludes that the puristic stance toward language, which maintains the idea of an absolute standard of correctness, has its roots in a natural inclination towards nostalgia, further amplified by social pressures.<ref name="Aitchison-2001" />
On the other hand, Adalberot Aguirre Jr. argues that language alternation, commonly known as code-switching, can serve as a valuable teaching and learning strategy in the bilingual classroom. A bilingual teacher possesses an intuitive understanding of bilingual behavior, which can play a crucial role in constructing a sociolinguistic profile of the student in such a classroom. This understanding enables the teacher to determine three key aspects: 1) the nature of the code-switching and how it occurs; 2) whether a student is mixing or alternating languages in a manner that indicates confusion; and 3) criteria for discerning between code-switching that carries meaning and code-switching that lacks significance.<ref name="Aguirre-1988">{{Cite journal |last=Aguirre |first=Adalberto |date=1988 |title=Code-Switching, Intuitive Knowledge, and the Bilingual Classroom |url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED316036 |language=en |website=Education Resources Information Center |archive-date=2023-05-25 |access-date=2023-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525203021/https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED316036 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Aguirre asserts that a bilingual teacher's intuitive knowledge of bilingual behavior can be instrumental in his or her construction of a sociolinguistic profile for the student in the bilingual classroom.<ref name="Aguirre-1988" /> He supports his argument by outlining three ways in which a teacher's intuitive knowledge can benefit bilingual children in the classroom. Firstly, if a teacher's intuitive knowledge suggests that a child possesses similar linguistic abilities in both languages, they may choose to alternate languages during instruction. This approach aims to enhance sentence complexity and expand the student's vocabulary, thereby strengthening their intuitive knowledge base for bilingual behavior. Secondly, a bilingual teacher's intuition may alert them to instances where a bilingual student is mixing languages in a way that indicates confusion rather than intentional code switching. Lastly, teachers can utilize their intuitive understanding of code switching to establish criteria for distinguishing meaningful code switching from meaningless instances.<ref name="Aguirre-1988" />
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Many consider code-switching harmful to the classroom, especially for particular populations of students whose first language may not be the language of the country they reside. Code-switching is considered by some as a racist pedagogy that upholds the structure of domination of the English language. This is because code-switching encourages a monolingual classroom which prevents students from thinking or speaking in ways that come easiest to them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams-Farrier |first=Bonnie J |title=Talkin' bout good & bad' pedagogies: Code-switching vs. comparative rhetorical approaches |date=2017 |publisher=College Composition and Communication 69.2 |pages=230–259 |language=English}}</ref>
Instead many prefer the alternative of code-meshing, where all languages and dialects are valued equally. This pedagogy celebrates and encourages students to use their primary language to diversify and improve their school work without limiting them to a singular language. It exposes students to more cultures in an unfiltered way.<ref
Some teachers consider code-switching useful in the classroom because it helps students who do not speak standard English as their first language feel more welcomed in the class and also learn the material more easily. It also helps with learning a new language since it allows students to guess what words in another language mean outside of the context that is given in their native language. One of the challenges with code-switching is that teachers have to consider that if they code-switch or otherwise use more than one language in their classroom, they have to ensure that the students truly understand what the content is in the different language. To do so, teachers often lessen the amount of material that they cover, teaching their students only the basics and allowing them to learn the rest by themselves.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nurhamidah |url=http://usnsj.com/index.php/JEE |title=Code-Switching in EFL Classroom: Is It Good or Bad |last2=Fauziati |first2=Endang |last3=Supriyadi |first3=Salmet |publisher=Journal of English Education |year=2018 |pages=81 |language=English |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812082847/http://usnsj.com/index.php/JEE |archive-date=12 August 2022}}</ref>
Code-switching can pressure students to conform to one language over another.<ref name="Goldstein-2005" /> For some students it can lead to a feeling of disconnection to their own culture, and that those students are betraying their culture by learning English over their mother tongue. Being a non-native speaker in a foreign country can lead to total isolation due to the inability to communicate. There is this sense of feeling lost and many feel the need to hide their cultural identity.<ref name="Weinreich" /> Many educators have argued that in a classroom, all cultures should be celebrated and students should feel like they are fully accepted and valued for who they are.<ref name="Goldstein-2005" />
Code-switching is very common in classrooms of multiple languages for many different purposes.
== Code-switching in remote settings ==
Code-switching in remote settings has become higher on the writing agenda due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. Remote settings have taken the likes of social media, emails, and any other setting where communication has been made via online platforms. A study done by Cambridge University looked into how code-switching is present on remote, online platforms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Feldman |first1=Laurie Beth |last2=Srinivasan |first2=Vidhushini |last3=Fernandes |first3=Rachel B. |last4=Shaikh |first4=Samira |date=August 2021 |title=Insights into codeswitching from online communication: Effects of language preference and conditions arising from vocabulary richness |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/abs/insights-into-codeswitching-from-online-communication-effects-of-language-preference-and-conditions-arising-from-vocabulary-richness/43C659A65569D4FF471429B7DD1D9ADD |journal=Bilingualism: Language and Cognition |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=791–797 |doi=10.1017/S1366728921000122 |s2cid=234814224 |issn=1366-7289 |archive-date=2023-03-22 |access-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322070313/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/abs/insights-into-codeswitching-from-online-communication-effects-of-language-preference-and-conditions-arising-from-vocabulary-richness/43C659A65569D4FF471429B7DD1D9ADD |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Looking at tweets from Twitter regarding [[Hurricane Irma]], researchers looked to see how posting went hand in hand with the impacted English and Spanish speaking countries. They found that many utilized English due to the platform's systemic influences. However, translations were prevalent in tweets to make them accessible to both English and Spanish speakers. To understand the relationship between how often people code-switched, the researchers calculated the proportion of code-switches of prior and current Tweets. The results of the study found that language switching produces Tweets that are better at conveying messages the individual wished to put across. Likewise, they found that multilingual individuals differed their code switches based on the language used in their previous Tweets. Due to the difficulty to use multiple languages in the same sentence in writing, more messages were English than in Spanish. Finally, when comparing non-code switching Tweets by the same writer, those with code-switching present had more complex language. This study is only one of potentially many studies to be done. Writing studies has much more to dissect about remote code-switching. Potential research could look into Zoom etiquette, Discord forums, etc.
== Theories ==
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===Linguistic theories===
In studying the syntactic and [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] patterns of language alternation, linguists have postulated specific [[Grammar|grammatical]] rules and specific syntactic boundaries for where code-switching might occur.
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[[Shana Poplack]]'s model of code-switching is an influential theory of the grammar of code-switching.<ref name="Winford" /> In this model, code-switching is subject to two constraints. The ''free-morpheme constraint'' stipulates that code-switching cannot occur between a lexical stem and bound morphemes. Essentially, this constraint distinguishes code-switching from borrowing. Generally, borrowing occurs in the lexicon, while code-switching occurs at either the syntax level or the utterance-construction level.<ref name="Gumperz" /><ref name="Poplack 1984 99–136"/><ref name="Muysken 1995 177–98"/> The ''equivalence constraint'' predicts that switches occur only at points where the surface structures of the languages coincide, or between sentence elements that are normally ordered in the same way by each individual grammar.<ref name="Winford" /> For example, the sentence: "I like you ''porque eres simpático''" ("I like you ''because you are friendly''") is allowed because it obeys the syntactic rules of both Spanish and English.<ref name="SanPop1981">{{Cite journal |last=Sankoff |first=David |author2=Shana Poplack |year=1981 |title=A formal grammar for code-switching |journal=Papers in Linguistics |volume=14 |pages=3–45 |issue=1–4 |doi=10.1080/08351818109370523|citeseerx=10.1.1.667.3175 }}</ref> On the contrary, cases like the noun phrases ''the casa white'' and ''the blanca house'' are ruled out because the combinations are ungrammatical in at least one of the languages involved. Spanish noun phrases are made up of determiners, then nouns, then adjectives, while the adjectives come before the nouns in English noun phrases. ''The casa white'' is ruled out by the equivalence constraint because it does not obey the syntactic rules of English, and ''the blanca house'' is ruled out because it does not follow the syntactic rules of Spanish.<ref name="Winford" />
Moreover, some observations on Sankoff and Poplack's model were later pointed out by outside researchers. The observations regard that free-morpheme and equivalence constraints are insufficiently restrictive, meaning there are numerous exceptions that occur. For example, the free morpheme constraint does not account for why switching is impossible between certain free morphemes. The sentence: "The students had ''visto la película italiana''" ("The students had ''seen the Italian movie''") does not occur in Spanish-English code-switching, yet the free-morpheme constraint would seem to posit that it can.<ref name="Belazi">{{Cite journal |last=Belazi |first=Heidi |author2=Edward Rubin |author3=Almeida Jacqueline Toribio |year=1994 |title=Code switching and X-Bar theory: The functional head constraint |journal=Linguistic Inquiry |volume=25 |pages=221–37 |issue=2|jstor=4178859|s2cid=27756266}}</ref> The equivalence constraint would also rule out switches that occur commonly in languages, as when Hindi postpositional phrases are switched with English prepositional phrases like in the sentence: "John gave a book ''ek larakii ko''" ("John gave a book ''to a girl''"). The phrase ''ek larakii ko'' is literally translated as ''a girl to'', making it ungrammatical in English, and yet this is a sentence that occurs in English-Hindi code-switching despite the requirements of the equivalence constraint.<ref name="Winford" /> Sankoff and Poplack's model focuses on the instances where code-switching does not interfere with the syntactic rule of the speaker's primary or second language.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Martínez |first=Ramón Antonio |date=2010 |title="Spanglish" as Literacy Tool: Toward an Understanding of the Potential Role of Spanish-English Code-Switching in the Development of Academic Literacy |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40997087 |journal=Research in the Teaching of English |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=124–149 |doi=10.58680/rte201012743 |jstor=40997087 |s2cid=146311514 |issn=0034-527X |archive-date=2023-03-13 |access-date=2023-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313070617/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40997087 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Although the model has been challenged with counter-examples collected by other researchers, there is a conclusion that most agree on. The conclusion is that the practice of code-switching demonstrates grammatical proficiency of an equivalent level as a monolingual speaker's speech competence, unlike the claims that code-switching reflects incompetence in either of the two languages of a bilingual speaker.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Woolford |first=Ellen |date=1983 |title=Bilingual Code-Switching and Syntactic Theory |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4178342 |journal=Linguistic Inquiry |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=520–536 |jstor=4178342 |issn=0024-3892 |archive-date=2018-08-09 |access-date=2018-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809123403/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4178342 |url-status=live }}</ref>
====Matrix language-frame model====
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====Constraint-free approach====
[[Jeff MacSwan]] has posited a ''constraint-free approach'' to analyzing code-switching. This approach views explicit reference to code-switching in grammatical analysis as [[tautology (logic)|tautological]], and seeks to explain specific instances of grammaticality in terms of the unique contributions of the grammatical properties of the languages involved. MacSwan characterizes the approach with the refrain, "Nothing constrains code-switching apart from the requirements of the mixed grammars."<ref name=Jeff>MacSwan, Jeff (2000). [https://terpconnect.umd.edu/~macswan/Bilingualism.pdf "The architecture of the bilingual language faculty: evidence from intrasentential code switching"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521171502/https://terpconnect.umd.edu/~macswan/Bilingualism.pdf |date=2023-05-21 }}. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 3 (1): 37–54. {{doi|10.1017/S1366728900000122}}. {{S2CID|16263499}}.</ref> The approach focuses on the repudiation of any rule or principle which explicitly refers to code-switching itself.<ref name=MacSwan>MacSwan, Jeff (2013). "Code-switching and grammatical theory". In T. Bhatia and W. Ritchie. Handbook of Multilingualism (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Blackwell.</ref> This approach does not recognize or accept terms such as "matrix language", "embedded language", or "language frame", which are typical in constraint-based approaches such as the MLF Model.
Rather than posit constraints specific to language alternation, as in traditional work in the field, MacSwan advocates that mixed utterances be analyzed with a focus on the specific and unique linguistic contributions of each language found in a mixed utterance. Because these analyses draw on the full range of linguistic theory, and each data set presents its own unique challenges, a much broader understanding of linguistics is generally needed to understand and participate in this style of codeswitching research.
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For example, Cantone and MacSwan (2009)<ref name=Cantone>{{cite book| last1=Cantone| first1=K. F.| last2=MacSwan| first2=J. |date=2009 |chapter= The syntax of DP-internal codeswitching |pages= 243–278 |editor1-last=Isurin |editor1-first=L. |editor2-last=Winford |editor2-first=D. |editor3-last=de Bot |editor3-first=K. |title=Multidisciplinary Approaches to Codeswitching |___location=Amsterdam |publisher=John Benjamins}}</ref> analyzed word order differences for nouns and adjectives in Italian-German codeswitching using a typological theory of Cinque that had been independently proposed in the syntax literature; their account derives the word order facts of Italian-German codeswitching from underlying differences between the two languages, according to Cinque's theory.{{citation needed | reason= Who is Cinque? What theory? I'm sure it's mentioned in the source cited, but it seems important enough here for a direct link (as 'cited in'), even just copying their ref and adding any online version available.| date= June 2016 }}
Myers-Scotton and MacSwan debated the relative merits of their approaches in a series of exchanges published in 2005 in ''[[Bilingualism: Language and Cognition]]'', issues 8(1) and 8(2).▼
====Other theories====
Much remains to be done before a more complete understanding of code-switching phenomena is achieved. Linguists continue to debate apparent counter-examples to proposed code-switching theories and constraints.<ref name=Bokamba /><ref name="Winford" /><ref name=Bhatt>{{cite book| last=Bhatt |first=Rakesh M. |date=1995 |chapter=Code-switching and the functional head constraint| editor=Janet Fuller |display-editors=etal |title=Proceedings of the Eleventh Eastern States Conference on Linguistics |___location=Ithaca, NY |publisher=Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics |pages=1–12}}</ref>
The ''Closed-class Constraint'', developed by [[Aravind Joshi]], posits that [[closed class]] items (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, etc.) cannot be switched.<ref name=Joshi>{{cite book| last=Joshi |first=Aravind |date=1985 |chapter=How much context-sensitivity is necessary for assigning structural descriptions: Tree adjoining grammars |editor1-last=Dowty |editor1-first=D. |editor1-link=David Dowty |editor2-last=Karttunen |editor2-first=L. |editor2-link=Lauri Karttunen |editor3-last=Zwicky |editor3-first=A. |editor3-link=Arnold Zwicky |title=Natural Language Parsing |___location=Cambridge, England |publisher=Cambridge University Press|chapter-url=https://www.cs.sfu.ca/~anoop/courses/ReadingGroup-Summer-2006/joshi85.pdf }}</ref> The ''Functional Head Constraint'' developed by Belazi et al. holds that code-switching cannot occur between a [[Function word|functional]] [[Head (linguistics)|head]] (a [[complementizer]], a [[Determiner (linguistics)|determiner]], an [[inflection]], etc.) and its complement (sentence, noun-phrase, verb-phrase).<ref name="Belazi" /> These constraints, among others like the Matrix Language-Frame model, are controversial among linguists positing alternative theories, as they are seen to claim universality and make general predictions based upon specific presumptions about the nature of syntax.<ref name="Bokamba" /><ref name="Bhatt" />
▲Myers-Scotton and MacSwan debated the relative merits of their approaches in a series of exchanges published in 2005 in ''[[Bilingualism: Language and Cognition]]'', issues 8(1) and 8(2).
== Neuroscience ==
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=== Bilingual disadvantage ===
Despite the advantages to code-switching in the classroom, research has shown that bilingual children seem to have more of a disadvantage compared to their monolingual peers.<ref name="Cornell Gonzales" /> For example, many of them are required to write or speak in English in American schools, rather than writing and speaking in their native languages.<ref name="Cornell Gonzales" /> Ena Lee and Steve Marshall
During class writing activities, bi/multilingual students are often times faced with [[
=== Neuroanatomy ===
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=== African-American English and Standard English ===
Children growing up in African American communities, who natively speak [[African-American Vernacular English]] (AAVE), acquire a kind of bilingualism (or bidialectism) when entering mainstream American classrooms. Teachers and academic expectations they encounter require them to use [[standard English|standard]], [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|higher-prestige]] linguistic features for school assignments and classroom participation, often effectively leading these students to develop an ability to code-switch rapidly between [[Nonstandard dialect|nonstandard]] AAVE and standard English features. This can pose a processing obstacle for some students who have to navigate subtle grammatical differences between the two varieties of English when interpreting prompts and instructions (see, e.g., Terry, et al., 2010 on past tense copula ''was/were'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Terry |first1=J.M. |last2=Hendrick |first2=R. |last3=Evangelou |first3=E. |last4=Smith |first4=R.L. |title=Variable dialect switching among African American children: Inferences about working memory |journal=Lingua |date=October 2010 |volume=120 |issue=10 |pages=2463–2475 |doi=10.1016/j.lingua.2010.04.013|s2cid=14121386 |url=http://opus.bath.ac.uk/20595/1/Dialect_Switching.pdf }}</ref><ref>Mills, Monique T. & Julie A. Washington. 2015. Managing Two Varieties: Code-Switching in the Educational Context. In Jennifer Bloomquist, [[Lisa Green (linguist)|Lisa J. Green]] & [[Sonja Lanehart|Sonja L. Lanehart]] (eds.), ''The Oxford Handbook of African American Language''. Oxford University Press.
|Court reporter|I'm sorry, what? |Jeantel|[Slowly, deliberately] The '''nigga's''' behind—the '''nigga ∅''' behind me.}}</blockquote>The structure of African American English differs significantly from standard English, particularly in the use of the Invariant "be
=== Cantonese and English ===
{{main|Code-switching in Hong Kong}}
The following examples demonstrate two types of code-switching (intra-sentential and inter-sentential code-switching) by Cantonese-English bilingual children. The examples are taken from the Hong Kong Bilingual Child Language Corpus.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yip |first1=Virginia |last2=Matthews |first2=Stephen |date=2000 |title=Syntactic transfer in a Cantonese–English bilingual child |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/abs/syntactic-transfer-in-a-cantoneseenglish-bilingual-child/EBF55AD6DDA35C7C01008BC5C3873DD8 |journal=Bilingualism: Language and Cognition |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=193–208 |doi=10.1017/S136672890000033X |hdl=10722/42122 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=2023-01-08 |access-date=2023-01-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230108044339/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/abs/syntactic-transfer-in-a-cantoneseenglish-bilingual-child/EBF55AD6DDA35C7C01008BC5C3873DD8 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
The first example illustrates intra-sentential code-switching, where the child Alicia (age 2) inserted the English noun ''apple'' into her Cantonese sentence:<ref name="Yip-2016">{{Cite journal |last1=Yip |first1=Virginia |last2=Matthews |first2=Stephen |date=2016 |title=Code-Mixing and Mixed Verbs in Cantonese-English Bilingual Children: Input and Innovation |journal=Languages |volume=1 |issue=1|page=4 |doi=10.3390/languages1010004 |doi-access=free |hdl=10722/226575 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
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Code-switching between English and [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (Filipino), as well as English and other native languages, is very widespread in the [[Philippines]]. Known generally as [[Taglish]], it has become the de facto [[lingua franca]] among the urbanized and/or educated [[middle class]]. It is largely considered the "normal acceptable conversation style of speaking and writing" in informal settings. It is so widespread that a non-native speaker can be identified easily because they predominantly use pure Tagalog, whereas a native speaker would switch freely with English.<ref name="Bautista2004"/><ref name="Goulet">{{cite journal |last1=Goulet |first1=Rosalina Morales |title=English, Spanish, and Tagalog; a study of grammatical, lexical, and cultural interference |journal=Philippine Journal of Linguistics |date=1971 |issue=Special Monograph Issue № 1}}</ref><ref name="lesada">{{cite thesis |last=Lesada |first=Joseph D. |date=2017 |title=Taglish in Metro Manila: An Analysis of Tagalog-English Code-Switching |type=BA |publisher= University of Michigan |url= https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/139623/jlesada.pdf|access-date=31 October 2021|hdl=2027.42/139623}}</ref>
Roger
According to the linguist Maria Lourdes S. Bautista, there are two contrasting types of code-switching in the Philippines: deficiency-driven and proficiency-driven. Deficiency-driven code-switching is when a person is not competent in one language and thus has to switch back to the language they are more familiar with. This is common among younger children, as in the example below given by Bautista:<ref name="Bautista2004"/><ref name="lesada"/>
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Proficiency-driven code-switching is characterized by frequent switching of the Matrix Language (ML) between Tagalog and English, demonstrating the high proficiency of the speakers in both languages. There are also a wide range of strategies involved, including: the formation of bilingual verbs by the addition of prefixes, suffixes, and infixes (e.g. '''Nagsa-'''''sweat'' '''ako''' = "I was sweating"); switching at the morphological, word, phrasal, or clausal levels; and the use of system morphemes (like [[enclitic]]s, [[Conjunction (grammar)|conjunction]]s, etc.) within long stretches of ML content; and even the inversion of the [[verb–subject–object]] word order of Tagalog into the [[subject-verb-object]] order of English.<ref name="lesada"/>
According to Bautista, the reason for this type of code-switching is what she termed "communicative efficiency", wherein a speaker can "convey meaning using the most accurate, expressive, or succinct lexical items available to them."<ref name="Bautista2004">{{cite journal |last1=Bautista |first1=Maria Lourdes S. |title=Tagalog-English Code-switching as a Mode of Discourse |journal=Asia Pacific Education Review |date=2004 |volume=5 |pages=226–233 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/BF03024960 |s2cid=145684166 |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ720543.pdf |archive-date=2022-05-15 |access-date=2021-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515012035/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ720543.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="lesada"/> The linguist Rosalina Morales Goulet also enumerated several reasons for this type of code-switching. They are: "for precision, for transition, for comic effect, for atmosphere, to bridge or create social distance, for snob appeal, and for secrecy."<ref name="Goulet"/>
===French and Tamil===
This example of switching from [[French language|French]] to [[Tamil language|Tamil]] comes from [[Ethnography|ethnographer]] Sonia Das's work with immigrants from [[Jaffna]],
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