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{{short description|Ability of a computer system to be used by all people}}
'''Computer accessibility'''
▲'''Computer accessibility''' (also known as '''accessible computing''') refers to the [[accessibility]] of a [[computer system]] to all people, regardless of [[disability]] type or severity of impairment. The term ''accessibility'' is most often used in reference to specialized hardware or [[software]], or a combination of both, designed to enable the use of a computer by a person with a disability or impairment. Computer accessibility often has direct positive effects on people with disabilities.
Accessibility features are meant to make the use of technology less challenging for those with disabilities. Common accessibility features include [[Text to Speech|text-to-speech]], [[Closed captioning|closed-captioning]], and [[keyboard shortcut]]s. More specific technologies that need additional hardware may be referred to as [[assistive technology]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wu|first1=Ting-Fang|last2=Meng|first2=Ling-Fu|last3=Wang|first3=Hwa-Pey|last4=Wu|first4=Wu-Tien|last5=Li|first5=Tien-Yu|date=2002|editor-last=Miesenberger|editor-first=Klaus|editor2-last=Klaus|editor2-first=Joachim|editor3-last=Zagler|editor3-first=Wolfgang|title=Computer Access Assessment for Persons with Physical Disabilities: A Guide to Assistive Technology Interventions|journal=Computers Helping People with Special Needs|volume=2398|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science|language=en|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|pages=204–211|doi=10.1007/3-540-45491-8_44|isbn=978-3-540-45491-5}}</ref>▼
There are many disabilities or impairments that can be a barrier to effective computer use. These impairments, which can be acquired from [[disease]], [[Major trauma|trauma]], or maybe [[Congenital disorder|congenital]], include but are not limited to:▼
*[[Cognitive disabilities|Cognitive impairments]] (head injury, autism, developmental disabilities) and [[learning disabilities]], (such as [[dyslexia]], [[dyscalculia]], or [[ADHD]]).▼
*[[Visual impairment]], such as low-vision, complete or partial [[blindness]], and [[color blindness]].▼
*Hearing-related disabilities (deafness), including [[deafness]], being [[hard of hearing]], or [[hyperacusis]].▼
*Motor or dexterity impairment such as [[paralysis]], [[cerebral palsy]], [[Developmental coordination disorder|dyspraxia]], [[carpal tunnel syndrome]], and [[repetitive strain injury]].▼
A topic closely linked to computer accessibility is [[web accessibility]]. Similar to computer accessibility, web accessibility is the practice of making the use of the [[World Wide Web]] easier for individuals with disabilities.<ref name=":3" />▼
Accessibility is often abbreviated as the [[numeronym]] '''''a11y''''', where the number 11 refers to the number of letters omitted.<ref name="roselli-2016">
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</ref> This parallels the abbreviations of [[internationalization and localization|''internationalization'' and ''localization'']] as ''i18n'' and ''l10n'', respectively. Moreover, ''a11y'' is also listed on the [[USPTO]] [[Supplemental Register]] under Accessibility Now, Inc.<ref name="roselli-2016"/>
== Accessibility features ==
[[File: BBC News web accessibility demo.jpg|thumb|[[BBC News]] website shown in 'desktop mode,' with accessibility links at the top. The screenshot is taken from Windows Mobile.{{Update span|date=December 2023}}]]▼
People wishing to overcome an impairment in order to use a computer comfortably and productively may require a "special needs assessment" by an [[assistive technology]] consultant (such as an [[occupational therapist]], a [[rehabilitation engineering technologist]], or an [[Educational Technologist|educational technologist]]) to help them identify and configure appropriate assistive technologies to meet individual needs. Even those who are unable to leave their own home or who live far from assessment providers may be assessed (and assisted) remotely using [[remote desktop software]] and a [[web cam]]. For example, the assessor logs on to the client's computer via a [[broadband]] [[Internet]] connection, observes the user's computer skills, and then remotely makes accessibility adjustments to the client's computer where necessary.▼
▲Accessibility features are meant to make the use of technology less challenging for those with disabilities. Common accessibility features include [[Text to Speech|text-to-speech]], [[Closed captioning|closed-captioning]], and [[keyboard shortcut]]s. More specific technologies that need additional hardware
▲There are many disabilities or impairments that can be a barrier to effective computer use.
▲*[[Cognitive disabilities|Cognitive impairments]] (head injury, autism, developmental disabilities) and [[learning disabilities]], (such as [[dyslexia]], [[dyscalculia]], or [[ADHD]]).
▲*[[Visual impairment]], such as low-vision, complete or partial [[blindness]], and [[color blindness]].
▲*Hearing-related disabilities (deafness), including [[deafness]], being [[hard of hearing]],
▲*Motor or dexterity impairment such as [[paralysis]], [[cerebral palsy]], [[Developmental coordination disorder|dyspraxia]], [[carpal tunnel syndrome]], and [[repetitive strain injury]].
▲A topic closely linked to computer accessibility is [[web accessibility]]. Similar to computer accessibility, web accessibility is the practice of making the use of the [[World Wide Web]] easier to use for individuals with disabilities.<ref name="
== Accessibility options for specific impairments ==
▲[[File: BBC News web accessibility demo.jpg|thumb|[[BBC News]] shown in 'desktop mode,' with accessibility links at the top. The screenshot is taken from Windows Mobile.]]
[[File:Single switch onscreen keyboard.jpg|thumb|A single-switch [[assistive device]] that enables the user to access an [[on-screen keyboard]]]]▼
=== Cognitive impairments and illiteracy ===
The biggest challenge in computer accessibility is to make resources accessible to people with cognitive disabilities—particularly those with poor communication and reading skills.
In these situations, an alternative approach for users who want to access public computer-based terminals in [[libraries]], [[Automated teller machine|ATMs]], and information kiosks is for the user to present a token to the computer terminal
This concept is encompassed by the [[Comité Européen de Normalisation|CEN]] standard "Identification card systems – Human-machine interface".<ref>CEN: [http://www.cen.eu/cen/Sectors/TechnicalCommitteesWorkshops/CENTechnicalCommittees/Pages/TCStruc.aspx?param=6205&title=Personal%20identification,%20electronic%20signature%20and%20cards%20and%20their%20related%20systems%20and%20operations Personal identification, electronic signature and cards and their related systems and operations - Structure] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005012815/http://www.cen.eu/cen/Sectors/TechnicalCommitteesWorkshops/CENTechnicalCommittees/Pages/TCStruc.aspx?param=6205&title=Personal%20identification,%20electronic%20signature%20and%20cards%20and%20their%20related%20systems%20and%20operations |date=2013-10-05 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tiresias.org/research/reports/en1332_4_revision.htm |title=Draft EN 1332-4 Identification Card Systems - Man-Machine Interface - Part 4 : Coding of user requirements for people with special needs |publisher=Tiresias.org |date=2009-11-20 |access-date=2013-07-28}}</ref> This development of this standard has been supported in Europe by [[SNAPI]] and has been successfully incorporated into the Local Authority Smartcards Standards e-Organisation (LASSeO) specifications.<ref>LASSeO: === Visual impairment ===
Since computer interfaces often
For About 8% of men and about 0.4% of women have some form of [[Color blindness|color-blindness]].<ref>Chan X, Goh S, Tan N (2014). "Subjects with colour vision deficiency in the community: what do primary care physicians need to know?". Asia Pacific Family Medicine. 13 (1): 10. DOI:10.1186/s12930-014-0010-3.</ref> The main color combinations that might be confused by people with visual deficiency include red/green and blue/yellow. However, in a well-designed user interface,
=== Motor and dexterity impairments ===
▲[[File:Single switch onscreen keyboard.jpg|thumb|upright|A single-switch [[assistive device]] that enables the user to access an [[on-screen keyboard]]]]
Some people may not be able to use a conventional [[input device]], such as the [[computer mouse|mouse]] or the [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]. Therefore, it is important for software functions to be accessible using both devices. Ideally, the software will use a generic input [[API]] that permits the use even of highly specialized devices unheard of at the time of software's initial development. [[Keyboard shortcuts]] and [[mouse gesture]]s are ways to achieve this access, as are more specialized solutions, including on-screen software keyboards and alternate input devices ([[Switch Access|switches]], [[joystick]]s and [[trackball]]s). Users may enable a [[Bounce keys|bounce key]] feature, allowing the keyboard to ignore repeated presses of the same key. [[Speech recognition]] technology is also a compelling and suitable alternative to conventional keyboard and mouse input as it simply requires a commonly available audio headset.
[[User interface design|UI design]] can also improve accessibility for users with motor impairments. For example, [[barrier pointing]] design allows commonly
The [[astrophysics|astrophysicist]] [[Stephen Hawking]] is an example of someone with severe motor and physical limitations who used assistive technology to support [[activities of daily living]]. He used a switch, combined with special software, that allowed him to control his [[wheelchair]]-mounted computer using his limited and small movement ability. This personalized system allowed him to remain mobile, do research, and produce his written work. Prof. Hawking also used [[augmentative and alternative communication]] technology to speak and an [[environmental control device]] to access equipment independently.
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=== Hearing impairment ===
While [[sound user interface]]s have a secondary role in common desktop computing, these interfaces are usually limited to using [[
== Types of software accessibility ==
=== Accessibility application programming interfaces ===
Software [[API]]s (application programming interfaces) exist to allow assistive technology products such as [[screen reader]]s and [[Screen magnifier|screen magnifiers]] to work with mainstream software. The current or past APIs include:
* Java Accessibility and the [[Java Access Bridge]] for [[Java (programming language)|Java]] software<ref>Oracle: [http://docs.oracle.com/javase/6/docs/technotes/guides/access/index.html Java Accessibility]</ref><ref>Oracle: [http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/index-jsp-136191.html Java SE Desktop Accessibility] (page containing a link to the Java Access Bridge).</ref> (being standardized as ISO/IEC TR 13066-6<ref>ISO: [http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?ics1=35&ics2=180&ics3=&csnumber=54004 ISO/IEC PRF TR 13066-6: Information technology -- Interoperability with Assistive Technology (AT) -- Part 6: Java accessibility application programming interface (API)].</ref>);
* [[Assistive Technology Service Provider Interface]] (AT-SPI) on [[UNIX]] and [[Linux]] (being standardized as ISO/IEC PDTR 13066-4<ref>ISO: [http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?ics1=35&ics2=180&ics3=&csnumber=54001 ISO/IEC PDTR 13066-4: Information Technology - Interoperability with Assistive Technology (AT) -- Part 4: Linux/UNIX graphical environments accessibility API].</ref>);
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* [[Microsoft UI Automation]] on Microsoft Windows, replacing MSAA.
Some of these APIs are being standardized in the [[ISO/IEC
=== Accessibility features in mainstream software ===
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# Accessibility APIs include the [[Assistive Technology Service Provider Interface]] and [[UI Automation]] on the desktop, [[WAI-ARIA]] in web applications, and the Blackberry Accessibility API<ref>Research in Motion (RIM): [http://www.blackberry.com/developers/docs/6.0.0api/net/rim/device/api/ui/accessibility/package-summary.html Package net.rim.device.api.ui.accessibility]. BlackBerry JDE 6.0.0 API Reference. Accessed 2013-01-17.</ref> on the Blackberry operating system.
# Other APIs are keyboard access and theming in widget libraries like [[Java Swing]] for desktop applications, the [[jQuery UI]] and Fluid Infusion<ref>[http://fluidproject.org/products/infusion Fluid Infusion]. Accessed 2013-01-17.</ref> for Web applications, and the [[Lightweight User Interface Toolkit]] (LWUIT) for mobile applications.
# Support for accessible development can be effective by using [[Glade Interface Designer|Glade]] (for the GTK+ toolkit),<ref>[http://glade.gnome.org/ Glade - A User Interface Designer]. Accessed 2013-01-17.</ref> the DIAS plugin for NetBeans IDE,<ref>[
# Support for UI Automation on Microsoft Windows,<ref name="
# The [[DAISY Digital Talking Book|DAISY]] player AMIS on the Microsoft Windows desktop<ref>DAISY Consortium: [http://www.daisy.org/amis/amis-daisy-2.02-daisy-3-playback-software AMIS: DAISY 2.02 & DAISY 3 Playback Software]. Accessed 2013-01-17.</ref> and the AEGIS Contact Manager for phones with Java ME<ref>[http://store.ovi.com/content/212755?clickSource=search&pos=1 AEGIS Contact Manager]. Accessed 2013-01-17.</ref> are designed for accessibility.
# The [[GNOME Shell]] Magnifier and [[Orca (assistive technology)|Orca]] on the GNOME desktop, GNOME's [[Accessibility Toolkit|ATK]] (Accessibility Toolkit), the web-based screen reader [[WebAnywhere]],<ref>WebInSight: [http://webanywhere.cs.washington.edu/ WebAnywhere: A Screen reader on the go] {{webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160523013006/http://webanywhere.cs.washington.edu/ |date=2016-05-23 }}. Accessed 2013-01-17.</ref> and the alternative text-entry system [[Dasher (software)|Dasher]] for [[Linux]], iOS and Android<ref>Inference Group (University of Cambridge): [http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/dasher/MobileDasher.html Mobile Dasher]. Accessed 2013-01-17.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100729145114/http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/dasher/id315473092?mt=8 Dasher for iOS] on iTunes. Accessed 2013-01-17.</ref> are examples of assistive technologies.
The goal of the listed tools is to embed accessibility into various mainstream technologies.<ref>Iosif Klironomos, Julio Abascal, Ilse Bierhoff: [http://www.cardiac-eu.org/deliverables/d3-1.htm D3.1 Report with background material needed to support the SDDP-2 Meeting: An Introduction to the Key Issues Relating to Accessible User Interfaces]. Accessed 2013-01-17.</ref>
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=== Effects in school ===
Computer accessibility plays a large role in the classroom. Accessible technology can enable [[personalized learning]] for all students.
==== Impacts in the classroom ====
When accessible technology allows personalized learning, there are positive impacts on students. Personalized learning switches the focus from what is being taught to what is being learned. This allows the students to need to become an integral part of the learning process. Accessibility in the classroom allows millions of students of all backgrounds to have equal educational opportunities and keep up with their non-disabled peers.<ref
When PCs are personalized for students in the classroom, students are more comfortable in the classroom, special needs students are better assisted and teachers can save time and effort.<ref
While PCs can provide a large amount of support in the classroom, iPads and apps can play a large role as well. Apps are constantly being developed to aid teachers, parents, and children. Educators have noted that the ease and portability of tablets make them a preferred choice that offers usage in a variety of environments. The advantages include interactivity, Internet access and text messaging. Educators have noticed improvements in motor skills, reading skills, and interaction with others in students.<ref name="
==== Impacts outside the classroom ====
Parents and teachers can notice the long-term effects that accessibility has on students with disabilities. This can include enhanced social skills, better relationships with family and friends, increased understanding of the world around them, and an exhibition of self-reliance and confidence. Changes can be seen in not only children but adults as well. Social media can help parents to learn, share knowledge, and receive moral support.<ref name="
=== Effects in the workplace ===
Computer accessibility plays a large role in the workplace. In the past few years, adults have had their disabilities accommodated by the ability to work from home and by the availability of reliable software. This allows workers to work in a comfortable area while still being able to support themselves. This is allowing thousands of people with disabilities to create and earn jobs for themselves. The inexpensiveness and reliability of computers has facilitated the process.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/01/technology/computer-technology-opens-a-world-of-work-to-disabled-people.html|title=Computer Technology Opens a World of Work to Disabled People|last=Joachim|first=David S.|date=2006-03-01|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-12-13|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
== Special needs assessments ==
▲People wishing to overcome an impairment in order to use a computer comfortably
== Standards and regulations regarding computer accessibility ==
=== Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 ===
[[Section 508 Amendment to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973|Section 508]] requires US Federal agencies make their electronic and information technology (EIT) accessible to all disabled employees and members of the public. The [[United States Access Board|US Access Board]] develops and maintains the [[Information and communications technology|Information and Communication Technology (ICT)]] accessibility standards.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.section508.gov/manage/laws-and-policies/
=== International Standards ===
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