Shell theorem: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 05:00, 29 November 2020

Latest revision as of 13:28, 20 August 2025

(42 intermediate revisions by 30 users not shown)

Line 1:

{{shortShort description|Statement on the gravitational attraction of spherical bodies.}}

In [[classical mechanics]], the '''shell theorem''' gives [[gravitational]] simplifications that can be applied to objects inside or outside a spherically [[symmetry|symmetrical]] body. This theorem has particular application to [[astronomy]].

[[Isaac Newton]] proved the shell theorem<ref name="Newton philo">{{cite book|last=Newton|first=Isaac|title=Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|url=https://archive.org/details/philosophinatur03newtgoog|date=1687|___location=London|pages=193, Theorem XXXI}}</ref> and stated that:

# A [[sphere|spherically]] [[symmetry|symmetric]] body affects external objects gravitationally as though all of its [[mass]] were concentrated at a [[point mass|point]] at its centrecenter.

# If the body is a spherically symmetric shell (i.e., a hollow ball), no net [[gravitational force]] is exerted by the shell on any object inside, regardless of the object's ___location within the shell.

A corollary is that inside a solid sphere of constant density, the gravitational force within the object varies linearly with distance from the centrecenter, becoming zero by symmetry at the centrecenter of [[mass]]. This can be seen as follows: take a point within such a sphere, at a distance <math>r</math> from the centrecenter of the sphere. Then you can ignore all of the shells of greater radius, according to the shell theorem (2). SoBut the point can be considered to be external to the remaining sphere of radius r, and according to (1) all of the mass of this sphere can be considered to be concentrated at its centre. The remaining mass <math>m</math> is proportional to <math>r^3</math> (because it is based on volume),. and theThe gravitational force exerted on ita isbody at radius r will be proportional to <math>\frac{m}{/r^2}</math> (the [[inverse square law]]), so the overall gravitational effect is proportional to {{nowrap|<math>\frac{r^3}{/r^2} =r</math>,}} so is linear in {{nowrap|<math>r</math>.}}

These results were important to Newton's analysis of planetary motion; they are not immediately obvious, but they can be proven with [[calculus]]. (Alternatively, [[Gauss's law for gravity]] offers aan much simpleralternative way to provestate the same resultstheorem.)

In addition to [[gravity]], the shell theorem can also be used to describe the [[electric field]] generated by a static spherically symmetric [[charge density]], or similarly for any other phenomenon that follows an [[inverse square law]]. The derivations below focus on gravity, but the results can easily be generalized to the [[electrostatic force]].

==Derivation of gravitational field outside of a solid sphere==

There are three steps to proving Newton's shell theorem (1). First, the equation for a gravitational field due to a ring of mass will be derived.  Arranging an infinite number of infinitely thin rings to make a disc, this equation involving a ring will be used to find the gravitational field due to a disk.  Finally, arranging an infinite number of infinitely thin discs to make a sphere, this equation involving a disc will be used to find the gravitational field due to a sphere.

The gravitational field <math>E</math> at a position called <math>P</math> at <math>(x,y) = (-p,0)</math> on the ''x''-axis due to a point of mass <math>M</math> at the origin is <math display="block">E_\text{point} = \frac{GM}{p^2}</math>

The gravitational field <math>E</math> at a position called <math>P</math> at <math>(x,y)=(-p,0)</math> on the ''x''-axis due to a point of mass <math>M</math> at the origin is<blockquote><math>E_\text{point}=\frac{GM}{p^2}</math> [[File:Point2.png|frameless|300x300px]]</blockquote>Suppose that this mass is moved upwards along the ''y''-axis to point <math>(0,R)</math>.  The distance between <math>P</math> and the point mass is now longer than before; It becomes the hypotenuse of the right triangle with legs <math>p</math> and <math>R</math> which is <math display="inline">\sqrt{p^2+R^2}</math>. Hence, the gravitational field of the elevated point is:<blockquote><math>E_\text{elevated point}=\frac{GM}{p^2+R^2}</math> [[File:Pointy2.png|frameless|270x270px]]</blockquote>The magnitude of the gravitational field that would pull a particle at point <math>P</math> in the ''x''-direction is the gravitational field multiplied by <math>\cos(\theta)</math> where <math>\theta</math> is the angle adjacent to the ''x''-axis. In this case, <math>\cos(\theta)=\frac{p}{\sqrt{p^2+R^2}}</math>. Hence, the magnitude of the gravitational field in the ''x''-direction, <math>E_x</math> is:<blockquote><math>E_x=\frac{GM\cos{\theta}}{p^2+R^2}</math></blockquote>Substituting in <math>\cos(\theta)</math> gives<blockquote><math>E_x=\frac{GMp}{(p^2+R^2)^{3/2}}</math></blockquote>Suppose that this mass is evenly distributed in a ring centered at the origin and facing point <math>P</math> with the same radius <math>R</math>.  Because all of the mass is located at the same angle with respect to the ''x''-axis, and the distance between the points on the ring is the same distance as before, the gravitational field in the ''x''-direction at point <math>P</math> due to the ring is the same as a point mass located at a point <math>R</math> units above the ''y''-axis:<blockquote><math>E_\text{ring}=\frac{GMp}{(p^2+R^2)^{3/2}}</math> [[File:Wider ring2.png|frameless|280x280px]]</blockquote>To find the gravitational field at point <math>P</math> due to a disc, an infinite number of infinitely thin rings facing <math>P</math>, each with a radius <math>y</math>, width of <math>dy</math>, and mass of <math>dM</math> may be placed inside one another to form a disc.  The mass of any one of the rings <math>dM</math> is the mass of the disc multiplied by the ratio of the area of the ring <math>2\pi y\,dy</math> to the total area of the disc <math>\pi R^2</math>.  So, <math>dM=\frac{M\cdot 2y\,dy}{R^2}</math>. Hence, a small change in the gravitational field, <math>E</math> is:<blockquote><math>dE=\frac{Gp\ dM}{(p^2+y^2)^{3/2}}</math> [[File:Wider ring with inside ring2.png|frameless|350x350px]]</blockquote>Substituting in <math>dM</math> and integrating both sides gives the gravitational field of the disk:<blockquote><math>E=\int \frac{GMp\ \cdot \frac{2y\ dy}{R^2}}{(p^2+y^2)^{3/2}}</math></blockquote>Adding up the contribution to the gravitational field from each of these rings will yield the expression for the gravitational field due to a disc.  This is equivalent to integrating this above expression from <math>y=0</math> to <math>y=R</math> , resulting in:<blockquote><math>E_\text{disc}=\frac{2GM}{R^2} \left( 1-\frac{p}{\sqrt{p^2+R^2}}\right)</math></blockquote>To find the gravitational field at point <math>P</math> due to a sphere centered at the origin, an infinite amount of infinitely thin discs facing <math>P</math>, each with a radius <math>R</math>, width of <math>dx</math>, and mass of <math>dM</math> may be placed together.

[[File:Point2.png|frameless|300x300px]]

Suppose that this mass is moved upwards along the ''y''-axis to the point {{nowrap|<math>(0,R)</math>.}} The distance between <math>P</math> and the point mass is now longer than before; It becomes the [[hypotenuse]] of the right triangle with legs <math>p</math> and <math>R</math> which is {{nowrap|<math display="inline">\sqrt{p^2 + R^2}</math>.}} Hence, the gravitational field of the elevated point is:

<math display="block">E_\text{elevated point} = \frac{GM}{p^2+R^2}</math>

[[File:Pointy2.png|frameless|270x270px]]

TheseThe discs'magnitude radiiof the gravitational field that would pull a particle at point <math>RP</math> followin the height''x''-direction ofis the crossgravitational sectionfield of amultiplied sphereby <math>\cos(with\theta)</math> constantwhere radius "<math>a\theta</math>") which is anthe equationangle ofadjacent ato semithe ''x''-circle:axis. In this case, {{nowrap|<math>R\cos(\theta) = \frac{p}{\sqrt{ap^2-x + R^2}}</math>. }} <math>x</math>Hence, variesthe frommagnitude <math>-a</math>of tothe gravitational field in the ''x''-direction, <math>aE_x</math>. is:

<math display="block">E_x = \frac{GM\cos{\theta}}{p^2+R^2}</math>

Substituting in <math>\cos(\theta)</math> gives

<math display="block">E_x = \frac{GMp}{\left(p^2+R^2\right)^{3/2}}</math>

Suppose that this mass is evenly distributed in a ring centered at the origin and facing point <math>P</math> with the same radius {{nowrap|<math>R</math>.}} Because all of the mass is located at the same angle with respect to the ''x''-axis, and the distance between the points on the ring is the same distance as before, the gravitational field in the ''x''-direction at point <math>P</math> due to the ring is the same as a point mass located at a point <math>R</math> units above the ''y''-axis:

<math display="block">E_\text{ring} = \frac{GMp}{\left(p^2+R^2\right)^{3/2}}</math>

[[File:Wider ring2.png|frameless|280x280px]]

TheTo massfind ofthe anygravitational offield theat discspoint <math>dMP</math> isdue theto massa disc, an infinite number of theinfinitely spherethin rings facing {{nowrap|<math>MP</math>,}} multipliedeach bywith thea ratioradius {{nowrap|<math>y</math>,}} width of the{{nowrap|<math>dy</math>,}} volumeand mass of an<math>dM</math> infinitelymay thinbe discplaced dividedinside byone theanother volumeto ofform a spheredisc. (withThe constantmass radiusof any one of the rings <math>adM</math>).  Theis volumethe mass of anthe infinitelydisc thinmultiplied discby isthe ratio of the area of the ring <math>2\pi R^2y\, dxdy</math>, orto the total area of the disc {{nowrap|<math>\pi(a R^2-x^2)\, dx</math>.}}  So, {{nowrap|<math display="inline">dM=\frac{\pi M(a^2-x^2)\cdot dx}{2y\frac{4,dy}{3}\pi aR^32}</math>.  Simplifying gives <math>dM=\frac{3M(a^2-x^2)\ dx}{4a^3}</math>.  AgainHence, <math>x</math>a variessmall fromchange <math>-a</math>in tothe gravitational field, <math>aE</math>. is:

<math display="block">dE = \frac{Gp\,dM}{(p^2+y^2)^{3/2}}</math>

[[File:Wider ring with inside ring2.png|frameless|350x350px]]

Substituting in <math>dM</math> and integrating both sides gives the gravitational field of the disk:

Each discs' position away from <math>P</math> will vary with its position within the 'sphere' made of the discs, so <math>p</math> must be replaced with <math>p+x</math>. <math>x</math> still varies from <math>-a</math> to <math>a</math>.

<math display="block">E = \int \frac{GMp\cdot \frac{2y\, dy}{R^2}}{(p^2+y^2)^{3/2}}</math>

Adding up the contribution to the gravitational field from each of these rings will yield the expression for the gravitational field due to a disc. This is equivalent to integrating this above expression from <math>y=0</math> to {{nowrap|<math>y=R</math>,}} resulting in:

<math display="block">E_\text{disc} = \frac{2GM}{R^2} \left( 1-\frac{p}{\sqrt{p^2+R^2}}\right)</math>

To find the gravitational field at point <math>P</math> due to a sphere centered at the origin, an infinite amount of infinitely thin discs facing {{nowrap|<math>P</math>,}} each with a radius {{nowrap|<math>R</math>,}} width of {{nowrap|<math>dx</math>,}} and mass of <math>dM</math> may be placed together.

These discs' radii <math>R</math> follow the height of the cross section of a sphere (with constant radius <math>a</math>) which is an equation of a semi-circle: {{nowrap|<math display="inline">R = \sqrt{a^2-x^2}</math>.}} <math>x</math> varies from <math>-a</math> to {{nowrap|<math>a</math>.}}

The mass of any of the discs <math>dM</math> is the mass of the sphere <math>M</math> multiplied by the ratio of the volume of an infinitely thin disc divided by the volume of a sphere (with constant radius {{nowrap|<math>a</math>).}} The volume of an infinitely thin disc is {{nowrap|<math>\pi R^2\, dx</math>,}} or {{nowrap|<math display="inline">\pi\left(a^2-x^2\right) dx</math>.}} So, {{nowrap|<math display="inline">dM = \frac{\pi M(a^2-x^2)\,dx}{\frac{4}{3}\pi a^3}</math>.}} Simplifying gives {{nowrap|<math display="inline">dM = \frac{3M(a^2-x^2)\,dx}{4a^3}</math>.}}

Each discs' position away from <math>P</math> will vary with its position within the 'sphere' made of the discs, so <math>p</math> must be replaced with {{nowrap|<math>p+x</math>. <math>x</math> still varies from <math>-a</math> to <math>a</math>.}}

[[File:Series of discs2.png|frameless|350x350px]]

Replacing <math>M</math> with {{nowrap|<math>dM</math>,}} <math>R</math> with {{nowrap|<math>\sqrt{a^2-x^2}</math>,}} and <math>p</math> with <math>p+x</math> in the 'disc' equation yields:<blockquote>
<math display="block">dE = \frac{\left( \frac{2G\left[3M\left(a^2-x^2\right)\right]}{4a^3} \right) }{\sqrt{a^2-x^2}^2}\cdot \left(1-\frac{p+x}{\sqrt{(p+x)^2+\sqrt{a^2-x^2}^2}}\right)\, dx</math></blockquote>
Simplifying,<blockquote>
<math display="block">\int dE = \int_{-a}^a \frac{3GM}{2a^3} \left(1 - \frac{p + x}{\sqrt{p^2 + a^2 + 2px}}\right)\, dx</math></blockquote>
Integrating the gravitational field of each thin disc from <math>x=-a</math> to <math>x=+a</math> with respect to {{nowrap|<math>x</math>,}} and doing some careful algebra, beautifully yields Newton's shell theorem:<blockquote>
<math display="block">E = \frac{GM}{p^2}</math></blockquote>
where <math>p</math> is the distance between the center of the spherical mass and an arbitrary point {{nowrap|<math>P</math>.}} The gravitational field of a spherical mass may be calculated by treating all the mass as a point particle at the center of the sphere.

== Outside a shell ==

Line 32 ⟶ 60:

[[File:shell-diag-1.svg|center|500px]]

(Note: the <math>d\theta</math> in the diagram refers to the small angle, not the [[arclength|arc length]]. The arc length is {{nowrap|<math display="inline">R\ , d\theta</math>.)}}

Applying [[Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation]], the sum of the forces due to the mass elements in the shaded band is<blockquote>
:<math>dF = \frac{Gm \;dM}{s^2} dM.</math></blockquote>
However, since there is partial cancellation due to the [[Euclidean vector|vector]] nature of the force in conjunction with the circular band's symmetry, the leftover [[Vector (geometry)#Vector componentsDecomposition|component]] (in the direction pointing towards {{nowrap|<math>m</math>)}} is given by<blockquote>
:<math>dF_r = \frac{Gm \;dM}{s^2} \cos(\varphi) \, dM</math></blockquote>
The total force on {{nowrap|<math>m</math>,}} then, is simply the sum of the force exerted by all the bands. By shrinking the width of each band, and increasing the number of bands, the sum becomes an integral expression:

{{block indent|:<math>F_r = \int dF_r</math>}}

Since <math>G</math> and <math>m</math> are constants, they may be taken out of the integral:

{{block indent|:<math>F_r = Gm \int \frac{\cos(\varphi\ dM)} {s^2} \, dM. </math>}}

To evaluate this integral, one must first express <math>dM</math> as a function of <math>d\theta</math>

The total surface of a spherical shell is

{{block indent|:<math>4\pi R^2 </math>}}

while the surface area of the thin slice between <math>\theta</math> and <math>\theta+d\theta</math> is<blockquote>
:<math>2\pi R\sin(\theta) \cdotR R\,d\theta = 2\pi R^2\sin(\theta) \,d\theta</math></blockquote>
If the mass of the shell is {{nowrap|<math>M</math>,}} one therefore has that

{{block indent|:<math>dM = \frac {2\pi R^2\sin(\theta) }{4\pi R^2} M\,d\theta = \textstyle\frac{1}{2} M\sin(\theta) \,d\theta</math>}}

and

{{block indent|:<math>F_r = \frac{GMm}{2} \int \frac{\sin(\theta) \cos(\varphi)} {s^2}\,d\theta </math>}}

By the [[law of cosines]],

{{block indent|:<math>\cos(\varphi) = \frac{r^2 + s^2 - R^2}{2rs}</math>}}

and

{{block indent|:<math>\cos(\theta) = \frac{r^2 + R^2 - s^2}{2rR}.</math>}}

These two relations link the three parameters {{nowrap|<math>\theta</math>,}} <math>\varphi</math> and <math>s</math> that appear in the integral together. As <math>\theta</math> increases from <math>0</math> to <math>\pi</math> radians, <math>\varphi</math> varies from the initial value 0 to a maximal value before finally returning to zero {{nowrap|at&nbsp; <math>\theta=\pi</math> .}} At the same time, <math>s</math> increases from the initial value <math>r-R</math> to the final value <math>r+R</math> as <math>\theta</math> increases from 0 to <math>\pi</math> radians. This is illustrated in the following animation:

[[File:Shell-diag-1-anim.gif|center]]

(Note: As viewed from {{nowrap|<math>m</math>,}} the shaded blue band appears as a thin [[annulus (mathematics)|annulus]] whose inner and outer radii converge to <math>R\ \sin (\theta)</math> as <math>d\theta</math> vanishes.)

To find a [[primitive function]] to the integrand, one has to make <math>s</math> the independent integration variable instead of {{nowrap|<math>\theta</math>.}}

Performing an [[implicit differentiation]] of the second of the "cosine law" expressions above yields

{{block indent|:<math>-\sin(\theta) \;,d\theta = \frac{-2s}{2rR} \, ds</math>}}

and thus

{{block indent|:<math>\sin(\theta) \;,d\theta = \frac{s}{rR} \, ds.</math>}}

It follows that

{{block indent|:<math>F_r = \frac{GMm}{2} \frac{1}{rR} \int \frac{s\cos(\varphi)} {s^2}\,ds = \frac{GMm}{2rR} \int \frac{\cos(\varphi)} s \,ds </math>}}

where the new integration variable <math>s</math> increases from <math>r-R</math> {{nowrap|to&nbsp; <math>r+R</math> .}}

Inserting the expression for <math>\cos (\varphi)</math> using the first of the "cosine law" expressions above, one finally gets that

{{block indent|:<math>F_r = \frac{GMm}{4r^2 R} \int \left( 1 + \frac{r^2 - R^2}{s^2} \right)\ ds\ .</math>}}

A [[primitive function]] to the integrand is

{{block indent|:<math>s - \frac{r^2 - R^2}{s}\ ,</math>}}

and inserting the bounds <math>r-R</math> and <math>r+R</math> for the integration variable <math>s</math> in this primitive function, one gets that<blockquote>
:<math>F_r = \frac{GMm}{r^2},</math> ,</blockquote>
saying that the gravitational force is the same as that of a point mass in the centrecenter of the shell with the same mass.

=== Spherical shell to solid sphere ===

Finally,It is possible to use this spherical shell result to re-derive the solid sphere result from earlier. This is done by integrateintegrating allan infinitesimally thin spherical shell with mass of {{nowrap|<math>dM</math>,}} and we can obtain the total gravity contribution of a solid ball to the object outside the ball

{{block indent|:<math>F_\text{total} = \int dF_r = \frac{Gm}{r^2} \int dM.</math>}}

BetweenUniform density means between the radius of <math>x</math> to {{nowrap|<math>x+dx</math>,}} <math>dM</math> can be expressed as a function of {{nowrap|<math>x</math>,}} i.e.,

{{block indent|:<math>dM = \frac{4 \pi x^2 dx}{\frac{4}{3} \pi R^3} M = \frac{3Mx^2 dx}{R^3}</math>}}

Therefore, the total gravity is

{{block indent|:<math>F_\text{total} = \frac{3GMm}{r^2 R^3} \int_0^R x^2 \, dx = \frac{GMm}{r^2}</math>}}

whichAs found earlier, this suggests that the gravity of a solid spherical ball to an exterior object can be simplified as that of a point mass in the centrecenter of the ball with the same mass.

== Inside a shell ==

For a point inside the shell, the difference is that when ''θ'' is equal to zero, ''ϕ'' takes the value {{pi}} radians and ''s'' the value {{nowrap|''R''&nbsp; −&nbsp; ''r''}}. When ''θ'' increases from 0 to {{pi}} radians, ''ϕ'' decreases from the initial value {{pi}} radians to zero and ''s'' increases from the initial value {{nowrap|''R''&nbsp; −&nbsp; ''r''}} to the value {{nowrap|''R''&nbsp; +&nbsp; ''r''}}.

This can all be seen in the following figure

Line 116 ⟶ 153:

Inserting these bounds into the [[primitive function]]

{{block indent|:<math>s - \frac{r^2 - R^2}{s}</math>}}

one gets that, in this case

{{block indent|:<math>F_r = 0\ , </math>}}

saying that the net gravitational forces acting on the point mass from the mass elements of the shell, outside the measurement point, cancel out.

'''Generalization:''' If {{nowrap|<math>f=\frac{k}{r^p}</math>,}} the resultant force inside the shell is:

{{block indent|:<math>F(r) = \frac{GMm}{4r^2 R} \int_{R-r}^{R+r} \left( \frac{1}{s^{p-2}} + \frac{r^2 - R^2}{s^p} \right) \, ds</math>}}

The above results into <math>F(r)</math> being identically zero if and only if <math>p=2</math>

Outside the shell (i.e. <math>r>R</math> or <math>r < -R</math>):

{{block indent|:<math>F(r) = \frac{GMm}{4r^2 R} \int_{r-R}^{r+R} \left( \frac{1}{s^{p-2}} + \frac{r^2 - R^2}{s^p} \right) \, ds</math>}}

== Derivation using Gauss's law ==

The shell theorem is an immediate consequence of [[Gauss's law for gravity]] saying that

{{block indent|:<math>\int_S {\mathbf g}\cdot \,d{\mathbf {S}} = -4 \pi GM</math>}}

where ''M'' is the mass of the part of the spherically symmetric mass distribution that is inside the sphere with radius ''r'' and

{{block indent|:<math>\int_S {\mathbf g}\cdot \,d{\mathbf {S}} = \int_S {\mathbf g}\cdot {\hat\mathbf{\hat n}}\,dS</math>}}

is the [[surface integral]] of the [[gravitational field]] '''<math>\mathbf{g'''}</math> over any [[closed surface]] inside which the total mass is ''M'', the [[unit vector]] <math> \hat\mathbf{ \hat n}</math> being the outward normal to the surface.

The gravitational field of a spherically symmetric mass distribution like a mass point, a spherical shell or a homogeneous sphere must also be spherically symmetric. If <math>\hat\mathbf{ \hat n}</math> is a unit vector in the direction from the point of symmetry to another point the gravitational field at this other point must therefore be

{{block indent|:<math> \mathbf g = g(r) \hat\mathbf{ \hat n }</math>}}

where ''g''(''r'') only depends on the distance ''r'' to the point of symmetry

Selecting the closed surface as a sphere with radius ''r'' with center at the point of symmetry the outward normal to a point on the surface, {{nowrap|<math> \hat\mathbf{ \hat n }</math>,}} is precisely the direction pointing away from the point of symmetry of the mass distribution.

One, therefore, has that

{{block indent|:<math> \mathbf {g} = g(r)\hat\mathbf{ \hat n }</math>}}

and

{{block indent|:<math>\int_S \mathbf g \cdot \,d{\mathbf S} = g(r) \int_S \,dS = g(r) 4\pi r^2 </math>}}

as the area of the sphere is 4{{pi}}''r''².

From Gauss's law it then follows that

{{block indent|:<math> g(r) 4\pi r^2 = -4 \pi GM ,</math>}}

or,

i.e. that

{{block indent|:<math> g(r) = -\frac {GM}{r^2}.</math>}}

== Converses and generalizations ==

It is natural to ask whether the [[Theorem#Converse|converse]] of the shell theorem is true, namely whether the result of the theorem implies the law of universal gravitation, or if there is some more general force law for which the theorem holds. MoreIf specificallywe require only that the force outside of a spherical shell is the same as for an equal point mass at its center, then there is one mayadditional askdegree of freedom for force laws.<ref name=Gurzadyan>{{cite journal| last=Gurzadyan |first=Vahe |authorlink=vahe Gurzadyan|title=The cosmological constant in McCrea-Milne cosmological scheme|journal=The Observatory|date= 1985|volume=105|pages=42–43|bibcode=1985Obs...105...42G}} https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1985Obs...105...42G&lang=en</ref><ref name=Arens>{{cite journal| last=Arens| first=Richard| authorlink=Richard Friederich Arens|title=Newton's observations about the questionfield of a uniform thin spherical shell|journal=Note di Matematica|date=January 1, 1990|volume=X|issue=Suppl. n. 1|pages=39–45}}</ref> The most general force, as given by the [[Gurzadyan theorem]], is:<ref name="Gurzadyan"/>

{{block indent|:<math> F(r) = -\frac{G M m}{r^2} -+ \frac{\Lambda M m c^2 r}{3} </math>}}

{{block indent|Suppose there is a force <math>F</math> between masses ''M'' and ''m'', separated by a distance ''r'' of the form <math>F = M m f(r)</math> such that any spherically symmetric body affects external bodies as if its mass were concentrated at its centre. Then what form can the function <math>f</math> take?}}

where <math>G</math> and <math>\Lambda</math> can be constants taking any value. The first term is the familiar law of universal gravitation; the second is an additional force, analogous to the [[cosmological constant]] term in [[general relativity]]. However, the inverse-square potential is the only potential such that the net force inside the shell is also zero.<ref name=Gurzadyan/>

In fact, this allows exactly one more class of force than the (Newtonian) inverse square.<ref name=Gurzadyan>{{cite journal| last=Gurzadyan |first=Vahe |authorlink=vahe Gurzadyan|title=The cosmological constant in McCrea-Milne cosmological scheme|journal=The Observatory|date= 1985|volume=105|pages=42–43|bibcode=1985Obs...105...42G}} http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1985Obs...105...42G</ref><ref name=Arens>{{cite journal| last=Arens| first=Richard| authorlink=Richard Friederich Arens|title=Newton's observations about the field of a uniform thin spherical shell|journal=Note di Matematica|date=January 1, 1990|volume=X|issue=Suppl. n. 1|pages=39–45}}</ref> The most general force as derived in <ref name="Gurzadyan"/> is:

The force described by the [[Yukawa potential]]

{{block indent|<math> F = -\frac{G M m}{r^2} - \frac{\Lambda M m r}{3} </math>}}

:<math> U(r) = -\frac{G M m}{r} e^{-\lambda r}</math>

has the property that the force outside of a spherical shell is also a Yukawa potential with the same range <math>1/\lambda</math> and centered at the shell's center, but for <math>\lambda > 0</math> the equivalent point mass is not the same as the mass of the shell.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kuhn |first=Paulo |title=Debye-Hückel interaction, or Yukawa potential, in different geometries |url=https://wp.ufpel.edu.br/pskuhn/files/2024/09/debye-huckel-interaction-or-yukawa-in-different-geometries.pdf |access-date=14 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=McDonald | first=Kirk |orig-date=April 17, 1984 |date=December 20, 2021 |title=A Naïve Estimate of the Coupling Constant in Yukawa Theory |url=http://kirkmcd.princeton.edu/examples/yukawa.pdf |access-date=14 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Shell theorem for a general potential |url=https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/296180/shell-theorem-for-a-general-potential |website=Mathematics Stack Exchange |access-date=14 February 2025 |language=en}}</ref> For a shell of radius <math>R</math> and mass <math>M</math>, the equivalent point mass is:

:<math>M_\text{eff} = M \frac{\sinh \lambda r}{\lambda r}</math>.

For an [[ellipsoid]]al shell, the two halves of the shell theorem are generalized by different types of shells. The shell bound by two [[concentric]], [[similarity (geometry)|similar]], and aligned ellipsoids (a [[homoeoid]]) exters no gravitational force on a point inside of it.<ref>[[Michel Chasles]], [http://sites.mathdoc.fr/JMPA/PDF/JMPA_1840_1_5_A41_0.pdf ''Solution nouvelle du problème de l’attraction d’un ellipsoïde hétérogène sur un point exterieur''], Jour. Liouville 5, 465–488 (1840)</ref> Meanwhile, the shell bound by two concentric, [[confocal]] ellipsoids (a [[focaloid]]) has the property that the gravitational force outside of two concentric, confocal focaloids is the same.<ref name="rodrigues">{{cite journal |last1=Rodrigues |first1=Hilário |title=On determining the kinetic content of ellipsoidal configurations |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |date=11 May 2014 |volume=440 |issue=2 |pages=1519–1526 |doi=10.1093/mnras/stu353|doi-access=free |arxiv=1402.6541 }}</ref>

where <math>G</math> and <math>\Lambda</math> can be constants taking any value. The first term is the familiar law of universal gravitation; the second is an additional force, analogous to the [[cosmological constant]] term in [[general relativity]].

If we further constrain the force by requiring that the second part of the theorem also holds, namely that there is no force inside a hollow ball, we exclude the possibility of the additional term, and the inverse square law is indeed the unique force law satisfying the theorem.

On the other hand, if we relax the conditions, and require only that the field everywhere outside a spherically symmetric body is the same as the field from some point mass at the centre (of any mass), we allow a new class of solutions given by the [[Yukawa potential]], of which the inverse square law is a special case.

Another generalization can be made for a disc by observing that

{{block indent|<math>dM=\frac{R^2}{2} \frac{d\theta \sin^2\theta}{\pi R^2}M=\frac{ \sin^2\theta}{2 \pi}M \, d\theta </math>}}

so:

{{block indent|<math>F_r = \frac{GMm}{2 \pi} \int \frac{ \sin^2 \theta \cos\varphi} {s^2}d\theta,</math>}}

where <math>M=\pi R^2 \rho</math>, and <math>\rho</math> is the density of the body.

Doing all the intermediate calculations we get:

{{block indent|<math>F(r) = \frac{Gm \rho}{8r^3} \int_{R-r}^{R+r} { \frac{(r^2+s^2-R^2)\sqrt{2(r^2R^2+r^2s^2+R^2s^2)-s^4-r^4-R^4}}{s^2} } \, ds</math>}}

== Newton's proofs ==

Line 202 ⟶ 224:

=== Introduction ===

Propositions 70 and 71 consider the force acting on a particle from a hollow sphere with an infinitesimally thin surface, whose mass density is constant over the surface. The force on the particle from a small area of the surface of the sphere is proportional to the mass of the area and inversely as the square of its distance from the particle. The first proposition considers the case when the particle is inside the sphere, the second when it is outside. The use of infinitesimals and limiting processes in geometrical constructions are simple and elegant and avoid the need for any integrations. They well illustrate [[Newton's method]] of proving many of the propositions in the ''Principia''.

His proof of Propositions 70 is trivial. In the following, it is considered in slightly greater detail than Newton provides.

The proof of Proposition 71 is more historically significant. It forms the first part of his proof that the gravitational force of a solid sphere acting on a particle outside it is inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the centrecenter of the sphere, provided the density at any point inside the sphere is a function only of its distance from the centrecenter of the sphere.

Although the following are completely faithful to Newton's proofs, very minor changes have been made to attempt to make them clearer.

Line 214 ⟶ 236:

[[File:Attraction Interior Sphere.png|Attraction interior sphere]]

Fig. 2 is a cross-section of the hollow sphere through the centrecenter, S and an arbitrary point, P, inside the sphere. Through P draw two lines IL and HK such that the angle KPL is very small. JM is the line through P that bisects that angle. From the geometry[[Inscribed ofangle|inscribed angle circlestheorem]], the triangles IPH and KPL are similar. The lines KH and IL are rotated about the axis JM to form two cones that intersect the sphere in two closed curves. In Fig. 1 the sphere is seen from a distance along the line PE and is assumed transparent so both curves can be seen.

The lines KH and IL are rotated about the axis JM to form 2 cones that intersect the sphere in 2 closed curves. In Fig. 1 the sphere is seen from a distance along the line PE and is assumed transparent so both curves can be seen.

The surface of the sphere that the cones intersect can be considered to be flat, and {{nowrap|<math> \angle PJI = \angle PMK </math> .}}

Since the intersection of a cone with a plane is an ellipse, in this case the intersections form two ellipses with major axes IH and KL, where {{nowrap|<math> \frac{IH}{KL} = \frac{PJ}{PM} </math> .}}

By a similar argument, the minor axes are in the same ratio. This is clear if the sphere is viewed from above. Therefore, the two ellipses are similar, so their areas are as the squares of their major axes. As the mass of any section of the surface is proportional to the area of that section, for the 2two elliptical areas the ratios of their masses {{nowrap|<math> \propto \frac{PJ^2}{PM^2} </math>.}}

Since the force of attraction on P in the direction JM from either of the elliptic areas, is direct as the mass of the area and inversely as the square of its distance from P, it is independent of the distance of P from the sphere. Hence, the forces on P from the 2two infinitesimal elliptical areas are equal and opposite and there is no net force in the direction JM.

As the position of P and the direction of JM are both arbitrary, it follows that any particle inside a hollow sphere experiences no net force from the mass of the sphere.

Line 233 ⟶ 254:

[[File:Attraction Exterior Sphere.png|Attraction exterior sphere]]

Fig. 1 is a cross-section of the hollow sphere through the centrecenter, S with an arbitrary point, P, outside the sphere. PT is the tangent to the circle at T which passes through P. HI is a small arc on the surface such that PH is less than PT. Extend PI to intersect the sphere at L and draw SF to the point F that bisects IL. Extend PH to intersect the sphere at K and draw SE to the point E that bisects HK, and extend SF to intersect HK at D. Drop a perpendicular IQ on to the line PS joining P to the centrecenter S. Let the radius of the sphere be a and the distance PS be D.

Let arc IH be extended perpendicularly out of the plane of the diagram, by a small distance ζ. The area of the figure generated is {{nowrap|<math> IH\cdot \zeta </math>,}} and its mass is proportional to this product.

The force due to this mass on the particle at P <math> \propto \frac{IH\cdot \zeta}{PI^2} </math> and is along the line PI.

The component of this force towards the centrecenter <math> \propto \frac{IH\cdot PQ\cdot \zeta}{PI^3} </math>.

If now the arc ''HI'' is rotated completely about the line ''PS'' to form a ring of width ''HI'' and radius ''IQ'', the length of the ring is 2{{pi}}·''IQ'' and its area is 2{{pi}}·''IQ''·''IH''. The component of the force due to this ring on the particle at ''P'' in the direction PS becomes {{nowrap|<math> \propto \frac{IH\cdot IQ\cdot PQ}{PI^3} </math>.}}

The perpendicular components of the force directed towards ''PS'' cancel out since the mass in the ring is distributed symmetrically about ''PS''. Therefore, the component in the direction ''PS'' is the total force on ''P'' due to the ring formed by rotating arc ''HI'' about ''PS''.

From similar triangles: {{nowrap|<math> \frac{IQ}{PI} = \frac{FS}{D}</math>;}} {{nowrap|<math> \frac{PQ}{PI} = \frac{PF}{D}</math>,}} and {{nowrap|<math> \frac{RI}{PI} = \frac{DF}{PF}</math>.}}

If HI is sufficiently small that it can be taken as a straight line, <math> \angle SIH </math> is a right angle, and {{nowrap|<math> \angle RIH = \angle FIS </math>,}} so that {{nowrap|<math> \frac{HI}{RI} = \frac{a}{IF}</math>.}}

Hence the force on ''P'' due to the ring {{nowrap|<math> \propto \frac{IH\cdot IQ\cdot PQ}{PI^3} = \frac{a\cdot DF\cdot FS\cdot PF}{IF\cdot PF\cdot D\cdot D} = \frac{a\cdot DF\cdot FS}{IF\cdot D^2} </math>.}}

Assume now in Fig. 2 that another particle is outside the sphere at a point ''p'', a different distance ''d'' from the centrecenter of the sphere, with corresponding points lettered in lower case. For easy comparison, the construction of ''P'' in Fig. 1 is also shown in Fig. 2. As before, ''ph'' is less than ''pt''.

Generate a ring with width ih and radius iq by making angle <math> fiS = FIS </math> and the slightly larger Angleangle {{nowrap|<math> dhS = DHS </math>,}} so that the distance PS is subtended by the same angle at I as is pS at i. The same holds for H and h, respectively.

The total force on p due to this ring is

{{block indent|:<math> \propto \frac{ih\cdot iq\cdot pq}{pi^3} = \frac{a\cdot df\cdot fS}{if\cdot d^2} </math>}}

Clearly {{nowrap|<math> fS = FS </math>,}} {{nowrap|<math> if = IF </math>,}} and {{nowrap|<math> eS = ES </math>.}}

Newton claims that DF and df can be taken as equal in the limit as the angles DPF and dpf 'vanish together'. Note that angles DPF and dpf are not equal. Although DS and dS become equal in the limit, this does not imply that the ratio of DF to df becomes equal to unity, when DF and df both approach zero. In the finite case DF depends on D, and df on d, so they are not equal.

Since the ratio of DF to df in the limit is crucial, more detailed analysis is required. From the similar right triangles, <math> \frac {DF}{PF} = \frac{ED}{ES}</math> and <math> ED^2 = (DF + FS)^2 - ES^2 </math>, giving <math> \frac {(PF^2 - ES^2)DF^2}{PF^2} + 2.FS.DF + FS^2 - ES^2 = 0 </math>. Solving the quadratic for DF, in the limit as ES approaches FS, the smaller root, <math> DF = ES - FS </math>. More simply, as DF approaches zero, in the limit the <math> DF^2 </math> term can be ignored: <math> 2\cdot FS\cdot DF + FS^2 - ES^2 = 0 </math> leading to the same result. Clearly df has the same limit, justifying Newton’s claim.

Since the ratio of DF to df in the limit is crucial, more detailed analysis is required. From the similar right triangles, <math display="inline"> \frac {DF}{PF} = \frac{ED}{ES}</math> and {{nowrap|<math> ED^2 = (DF + FS)^2 - ES^2 </math>,}} giving {{nowrap|<math> \frac {\left(PF^2 - ES^2\right)DF^2}{PF^2} + 2.\cdot FS.\cdot DF + FS^2 - ES^2 = 0 </math>.}} Solving the quadratic for DF, in the limit as ES approaches FS, the smaller root, {{nowrap|<math> DF = ES - FS </math>.}} More simply, as DF approaches zero, in the limit the <math> DF^2 </math> term can be ignored: <math> 2\cdot FS\cdot DF + FS^2 - ES^2 = 0 </math> leading to the same result. Clearly df has the same limit, justifying Newton’sNewton's claim.

Comparing the force from the ring HI rotated about PS to the ring hi about pS, the ratio of these 2 forces equals <math> \frac{d^2}{D^2} </math>.

Comparing the force from the ring HI rotated about PS to the ring hi about pS, the ratio of these 2 forces equals {{nowrap|<math display="inline"> \frac{d^2}{D^2} </math>.}}

By dividing up the arcs AT and Bt into corresponding infinitesimal rings, it follows that the ratio of the force due to the arc AT rotated about PS to that of Bt rotated about pS is in the same ratio, and similarly, the ratio of the forces due to arc TB to that of tA both rotated are in the same ratio.

Therefore, the force on a particle any distance D from the centrecenter of the hollow sphere is inversely proportional to {{nowrap|<math> D^2 </math>,}} which proves the proposition.

== Shell theorem in general relativity ==

Line 275 ⟶ 296:

Spherical symmetry implies that the metric has time-independent Schwarzschild geometry, even if a central mass is undergoing gravitational collapse (Misner et al. 1973; see [[Birkhoff's theorem (relativity)|Birkhoff's theorem]]). The [[Metric tensor (general relativity)|metric]] thus has form

:<math>ds^2 = - (1-2M/r)\, dt^2 + (1-2M/r)^{-1} \, dr^2 + r^2 \, d\Omega^2</math>

(using [[Geometrized unit system|geometrized units]], where {{nowrap|<math>G=c=1</math>).}} For <math>r>R>0</math> (where <math>R</math> is the radius of some mass shell), mass acts as a [[delta function]] at the origin. For {{nowrap|<math>r < R</math>,}} shells of mass may exist externally, but for the metric to be [[Singularity (mathematics)|non-singular]] at the origin, <math>M</math> must be zero in the metric. This reduces the metric to flat [[Minkowski space]]; thus external shells have no gravitational effect.

This result illuminates the [[gravitational collapse]] leading to a black hole and its effect on the motion of light-rays and particles outside and inside the event horizon (Hartle 2003, chapter 12).

Line 282 ⟶ 303:

==See also==

{{commons category}}

* [[Chasles' theorem (gravitation)]]

* [[Scale height]]

Line 291 ⟶ 313:

[[Category:Physics theorems]]

[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

[[Category:Electrostatics]]

[[Category:Potential theory]]